Heterosexual intercourse now accounts for the majority of HIV transmission within sub-Saharan Africa. The generation of microbicides and vaccines, therefore, requires a better understanding of the mucosal correlates of protection, including the role of HIV-specific IgA. It is now accepted that not all individuals are equally susceptible to HIV-1 infection, as exemplified by the HIV Exposed Seronegative (HESN) women of the Pumwani Cohort in Nairobi, Kenya. To assess whether mucosal IgA responses contribute to this protection, 3 novel IgA variable genes were cloned from HESN cervical B-cell cDNA. Nine monoclonal IgA Abs were produced, two of which were properly produced from cell culture. The HESN-derived A6/30L and A9/30L variants had a greater specificity for gp120IIIB than their A6/4L and A9/4L counterparts, while the A6 variant recognizes a distinct gp120 epitope compared to the broadly neutralizing antibody IgGb12. Further characterization of these IgA chains may suggest their suitability for use in microbicides or mucosal vaccines.

Heterosexual intercourse now accounts for the majority of HIV transmission within sub-Saharan Africa. The generation of microbicides and vaccines, therefore, requires a better understanding of the mucosal correlates of protection, including the role of HIV-specific IgA. It is now accepted that not all individuals are equally susceptible to HIV-1 infection, as exemplified by the HIV Exposed Seronegative (HESN) women of the Pumwani Cohort in Nairobi, Kenya. To assess whether mucosal IgA responses contribute to this protection, 3 novel IgA variable genes were cloned from HESN cervical B-cell cDNA. Nine monoclonal IgA Abs were produced, two of which were properly produced from cell culture. The HESN-derived A6/30L and A9/30L variants had a greater specificity for gp120IIIB than their A6/4L and A9/4L counterparts, while the A6 variant recognizes a distinct gp120 epitope compared to the broadly neutralizing antibody IgGb12. Further characterization of these IgA chains may suggest their suitability for use in microbicides or mucosal vaccines.

Il est bien établi que la gp120 du VIH-1 se fixe aux héparane sulfate (HS) cellulaires, par le biais de la boucle V3 ce qui favorise l'infectivité virale. Cependant, une variété de polyanions solubles, conjugués à CD4 (mCD4-HS12) a des propriétés antivirales et a montré in vitro une activité contre le VIH-1 à de très faibles concentrations (nM). En raison de la complexité structurale des HS, le criblage d'oligosaccharides différenciellement sulfatés pour améliorer l'activité de la molécule serait trop difficile. En vue d'obtenir une molécule plus spécifique, de plus haute affinité et plus facile à produire, des peptides mimant les HS ont été synthétisés par nos collaborateurs. Notre but était de cribler ces peptides pour leur capacité à inhiber l'entrée de VIH-1. À cette fin, nous avons mis en place une plateforme permettant d'immobiliser CCR5 et CXCR4 solubilisés sur des biocapteurs (Biacore) pour cribler des molécules qui inhibent la liaison de gp120-CD4 aux corécepteurs. Pour contrôler le processus de solubilisation, CXCL12, le ligand naturel de CXCR4, a été injecté sur CXCR4 immobilisé. Les affinités des isoformes de CXCL12 (α et γ) pour CXCR4 ont été calculées dans les fourchettes de valeurs précédemment obtenues avec des techniques différentes, prouvant ainsi la fonctionnalité de notre système et nous permettant d'étudier les mécanismes de fixation de ces deux isoformes sur CXCR4 ainsi que leur régulation par HS. Le système a ensuite été utilisé pour cribler la capacité d'inhibition des peptides mimétiques du HS. Chaque peptide, [S(XDXS)n] contient des acides aminés qui imitent les groupes hydroxyles, carboxyles et sulfates des HS. Le peptide contenant des résidus sulphotyrosines, une fois conjugué à mCD4 (mCD4-P3YSO3), montre un IC50 de l'ordre du nM, pour l'inhibition simultanée de la liaison de gp120 aux HS, à CD4, aux anticorps, aux corécepteurs ainsi que l'infection par VIH-1 in cellulo. Il constitue le premier inhibiteur bivalent de l'entrée qui cible à la fois les virus R5 et X4 et le concept d'un peptide mimétique des HS se prête à une analyse structurale et fonctionnelle de la liaison des chaînes HS aux protéines, une nouvelle technique dans ce domain / It is well-established that cell-associated Heparan Sulphate (HS) binds the V3 loop of gp120 of HIV-1 thus aiding in viral infectivity. However, a variety of soluble polyanions have antiviral properties once conjugated to CD4 and a CD4-conjugated HS (mCD4-HS12), showed nM activity against HIV-1 in vitro. Due to the structural complexity of HS, screening differently sulphated oligosaccharides to improve the molecule's activity would be too cumbersome, thus in order to obtain a more specific, higher affinity and easier to produce moiety, collaborators synthesized HS mimetic peptides. We aimed to screen these peptides and other anionic molecules for their capacity to inhibit HIV-1 entry. To this end we set-up a platform whereby solubilised CCR5 and CXCR4 were immobilized on biosensors (biacore) and used to screen for molecules that inhibited gp120-CD4 binding to the coreceptors. To control the solubilization process, CXCL12, the natural ligand of CXCR4, was injected over the immobilized CXCR4. The affinities of CXCL12 isoforms (α and γ) for CXCR4 were calculated within the ranges of values that have been previously described with different techniques, thus proving the functionality of our system and enabling us to investigate the binding mechanisms of these two isoforms with CXCR4 and their regulation by HS. The system was subsequently used to screen the inhibitory capacity of the HS mimetic peptides. Each peptide, [S(XDXS)n], contained amino acids that mimic the hydroxyl, carboxyl and sulphate groups on HS chains. The peptide containing sulphotyrosine residues, when conjugated to mCD4 (mCD4-P3YSO3), displayed nM IC50 for simultaneously inhibiting gp120 binding to HS, CD4, antibody, coreceptors and HIV-1 infection in vitro. This is the first bivalent entry inhibitor that targets both R5 and X4 viruses and the concept of a HSmimetic peptide lends itself to structural-functional analysis of HS chains binding to proteins, a novel technique in this field.

Als ein Grund für die vertikale Transmission von HIV von der Mutter auf das Kind während der Schwangerschaft bzw. der Geburt wird der Transport von HIV durch die Eihaut diskutiert. Hierbei handelt es sich wahrscheinlich um einen rezeptorvermittelten Transport, der auf einer Interaktion zwischen einer Lektin-bindenden Domäne auf dem viralen Oberflächenglykoprotein gp120 und einem Rezeptor auf der epithelialen Oberfläche beruht. In der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte die in den Transport von zellfreien HIV-1 durch epitheliale Zellen beteiligte Domäne auf gp120 erstmals näher charakterisiert werden. Überlappende Oligopeptide –basierend auf der Aminosäurensequenz von gp120– wurden zur Hemmung der Transzytose von HIV-1 durch humane Amnionzellen verwendet. Vier dieser Oligopeptide inhibierten die Transzytose von HIV-1 signifikant. Ein synthetisches Peptid (Env362-420) mit einer Länge von 59 Aminosäuren, welches die Sequenz der inhibierenden Oligopeptide darstellt, reduzierte die Menge an transportierten Viren ebenfalls, unabhängig vom HIV-1 Subtyp. Im Weiteren konnte der Transport von HIV-1 durch polyklonale Antikörper in Seren HIV-Infizierter, die mit Env362-420 reagierten, und durch Seren, die durch eine Immunisierung von Kaninchen mit Env362-420 gewonnen wurden, inhibiert werden. Antikörper gegen die in den Transport involvierte Domäne konnte in Seren HIV-Infizierter zu jedem Stadium der Infektion nachgewiesen werden. Bei einer Expression der Antikörper in der frühen Infektionsphase wäre ein positiver Einfluss auf die Prognose der Krankheit vorstellbar. Ob ein Zusammenhang zwischen einer Antikörperexpression gegen Env362-420 in HIV-infizierten Schwangeren und der Wahrscheinlichkeit einer HIV-Transmission auf das Kind besteht, muss noch geklärt werden. Env362-420 kann zur Identifizierung des Rezeptors auf der epithelialen Oberfläche, welcher in die Transzytose von HIV involviert ist, und zur Entwicklung von Inhibitoren der Mutter–Kind-Übertragung von HIV herangezogen werden. / The transport of HIV through the fetal membranes is discussed as one possible reason for the vertical transmission of HIV from mother to child during pregnancy or labor. HIV can penetrate epithelial barriers by a receptor-mediated transport mechanism involving interaction of a lectin-like domain on the viral glycoprotein gp120 and a receptor on the epithelial surface. In this study the domain on gp120 involved in transcytosis of cell-free HIV-1 through epithelial cells was characterized in more detail. Overlapping oligopeptides of gp120 were used to inhibit transcytosis of HIV 1 through an amnion cell monolayer. Four oligopeptides significantly inhibited transcytosis of HIV 1. A synthetic oligopeptide (Env362-420) with a length of 59 amino acids representing the sequence of the four inhibiting oligopeptides significantly reduced the transport of HIV, independent of the HIV 1 subtype. Furthermore, human HIV-positive sera with antibodies reacting with the domain Env362-420 and rabbit sera raised against the oligopeptide Env362-420 also inhibited the transport of HIV-1. Antibodies directed against the transcytosis domain could be detected in sera from every stage of infection. The development of these antibodies in the early stage of infection might play a role in the outcome of the HIV disease.It has to be investigated whether HIV 1-infected women who developed these antibodies show a lower rate of HIV transmission to their offspring than those without such antibodies. Env362–420 can also be used as a tool to identify the receptor involved in transcytosis on the epithelial cell surface and to develop inhibitors that could help prevent mother-to-child transmission of HIV during pregnancy or labor.

Quelques régions stables ont été découvertes sur les gp d’env du VIH-1 contre lesquelles des patients produisent des anticorps neutralisants. Les épitopes les plus prometteurs se trouvent dans la MPER et sont probablement exposés durant la fusion. Alors que les peptides isolés à partir de cette région ne sont pas parvenus à induire une réaction immunogène neutralisante, des études antérieures suggèrent que la membrane lipidique joue un rôle dans la structuration des antigènes et dans la réponse immunogénique.C’est pourquoi nous étudions la structure de ces épitopes. Cela nécessite leur surexpression, leur purification et leur reconstitution dans des liposomes. Une étude de CD montre qu’ils pourraient changer de conformation, cela sera confirmé par RMN. En outre, leur immunogénicité sera vérifiée par vaccination des souris. En plus, nous trouvons que le cholestérol peut modifier l’orientation des peptides englobant le motif CRAC de la gp41. / A few stable regions have been discovered on the HIV-1 env gp against which some patients produce neutralizing antibodies. The most promising ones are located in the MPER and are probably exposed transiently during the fusion. Whereas the peptides isolated from this region failed to induce immunogenic response, previous studies suggest the lipid membrane plays a role in antigens structure and in the immunogenic response.That is why we investigate the structure of these épitopes in membrane models. This requires the production of these épitopes by bacterial overexpression, their purification and their reconstitution in liposomes. A CD study shows that they could undergo a conformational change; this will be confirmed by NMR. Also their immunogenicity will be checked by mice immunization. In addition, we find that cholesterol could change the orientation of peptides encompassing a gp41 CRAC motif.

In recent years the glycan shield of the HIV-1 envelope spike (Env) has emerged as a potential target for microbicide and vaccine design. The densely packed glycans on its surface include an intrinsic population of under-processed oligomannose structures, and a number of lectins and broadly neutralising antibodies (bnAbs) have been isolated which are reactive to these ‘non-self’ glycan structures. The potential value of these agents in therapeutic or vaccine contexts depends upon the prevalence of their glycan targets in nature and their resilience to sequence mutation. Here the prevalence of oligomannose-type glycans on recombinant gp120 was demonstrated across a panel of isolates, revealing subtle cross clade differences. Alanine scanning of all potential N-glycosylation sites (PNGSs) within a model gp120 demonstrated the overall stability of the oligomannose population, but highlighted regions of glycan clusters where individual glycans act to limit the processing of their neighbours. This was formally demonstrated for the N332 ‘site of vulnerability’, where deletion of nearby glycosylation sites led to altered glycan processing at the N332 site. A panel of N332-dependent bnAbs was screened for their ability to tolerate such changes in glycan processing, with differing results. While some displayed promiscuous binding, others were more sensitive to glycan microheterogeneity. Site-specific glycosylation analysis of the PGT135 epitope revealed that an intolerance of certain glycoforms may explain its limited breadth. While a greater understanding of Env glycan microheterogeneity and bnAb promiscuity is required, these findings reveal insights into the architecture of the HIV-1 glycan shield that suggest it is a conserved and robust target for drug and vaccine design.

acase@tulane.edu

La première étape du cycle viral du virus de l'immunodéficience humaine se déroule grâce à l'interaction entre les glycoprotéines d'enveloppe gp120/gp41 et les récepteurs CD4 et CCR5/CXCR4. Les différentes fonctions activées par cette étape, incluant l'attachement, la pénétration et la signalisation cellulaire représentent des cibles potentielles pour le développement d'antirétroviraux. Dans ce travail, nous avons développé des approches permettant d'agir sur chacune de ces étapes à l'aide de peptides synthétiques, d'anticorps anti-peptide et d'inhibiteurs des voies de signalisation. Dans la première approche, nous nous sommes intéressé au développement d'analogues peptidiques de la région HRII en évitant les limitations, incluant courte demi-vie et émergence d'isolats de résistance, rencontrées lors de l'utilisation du peptide T-20 (Fuzeon). Nous avons synthétisé un peptide de 34 acides aminés modélisant la région HRII en incluant des acides aminés non naturels de série D uniquement au niveau de certains sites sensibles à la protéolyse ou dans la totalité de la séquence.Les résultats obtenus montrent que les modifications ponctuelles permettent de : i) maintenir la structure en hélice a du peptide, ii) maintenir sa capacité à interagir avec la région HRI, iii) d'augmenter sa demie-vie et iv) de conserver son activité antivirale. Dans la deuxième approche, nous avons testé la capacité des peptides analogues de la région HRII de VIH-1 et de la boucle V3 de SIV à induire la production d'anticorps neutralisants. Cette étude nous a permis d'aboutir à deux conclusions principales : i) les anticorps anti-HRII peuvent interférer avec l'activité antivirale du peptide administré lors du traitement antiviral, ii) contrairement aux anticorps anti-V3 du VIH-1, les anticorps anti-V3 de SIV sont incapables de neutraliser le virus SIV suggérant des fonctions différentes pour cette région chez HIV-1 et SIV. Dans la troisième partie, nous avons montré que l'attachement du virus VIH sur son récepteur s'accompagne de l'activation de la voie PKC dont l'isoforme PKC-d. L'inhibition de cet isoforme bloque totalement la réplication virale. Ce blocage semble s'opérer en interférant avec les étapes post-entrée du virus en inhibant la formation des pseudopodes et des filaments d'actine, structure nécessaire pour l'étape de la transcription inverse.

<p>Hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), a reactive oxygen specie (ROS), is most commonly associated with oxidative stress causing cytotoxic effects on living cells. Oxidative stress has been implicated in various conditions including neurodegenerative diseases, autoimmune diseases and cancer. In addition H₂O₂is produced as a defense mechanism against pathogens, as being released by activated phagocytes.<em> </em>In recent years, H₂O₂ has become established as an important regulator of signal transduction in eukaryotic cells. Hydrogen peroxide is generated both intracellularly and extracellularly in response to various stimuli including cytokines and growth factors. There are different mechanisms by which H₂O₂ is generated, facilitating signal transduction in cells; through NOX-system in miyochondria, via singlet oxygen, receptor/ligand interaction or by redox active metal ions. The HIV glycoprotein 120 (gp120) is associated with HIV dementia and it is known as a neurotoxin that causes neuronal damage. It has been proposed that free radicals may be involved in the pathogenesis caused by gp120. In addition the truncated form of thioredoxin (Trx80) is known to stimulate HIV replication in HIV infected cells, however, the exact mechanism is not known. A possible way both proteins may mediate their activity is by inducing H₂O₂ production. The aim of this study was to investigate H₂O₂ production induced by the proteins gp120 and Trx80. In order to detect H₂O₂ production an assay based on the fluorescent compound Amplex Red, was established. The assay was used to detect H₂O₂ released by gp120 and Trx80 in a cell-free environment, in a cell-system and in the presence of metal ions (copper ions) with a physiological reductant (ascorbate). We did not detect H₂O₂ production induced by gp120 and Trx80 respectively, using our assay, however, other ROS such as hydroxyl radicals may have been generated although they were not detectable with our method. Hence, further studies are needed in order to fully understand how gp120 and Trx80 mediate their activity.</p>

Prevalence of HIV-associated cognitive impairment is rising, the worst form of which is HIV-associated dementia (HAD). The disease is fuiled by a chronic innate type pro-inflammatory response in the brain which is highly dependent upon the activation of microglia. We first created an in vitro model of HAD composed of cultured microglial cells synergistically activated by the addition of IFN-gamma and the HIV-1 coat glycoprotein, gp120. This activation, as measured by TNF-alpha and NO release, is synergistically attenuated through the alpha7nAChR and p44/42 MAPK system by pretreatment with nicotine, and the cholinesterase inhibitor, galantamine. As these medications have been FDA approved, and over time, have shown only minor improvement in neurodegenerative disease for a limited period, we next sought to explore natural compounds that may attenuate HAD mediated inflammation and related pathology. This inflammation is a key moderator of A-#914; plaque deposition in the brain. Indeed it is likely a contributing factor as epidemiological data suggests significant numbers of HIV survivors are at elevated risk of developing Alzheimer's disease (AD). HIV-1 Tat-induced A-beta deposition, tau phosphorylation, and subsequent neuronal death could be risk factors for subsequent AD and/or HAD. Recent reports suggest green tea-derived (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) can attenuate neuronal damage mediated by conditions such as brain ischemia. In order to investigate the therapeutic potential of EGCG to mitigate the neuronal damage characteristic of HAD, IFN- gamma was evaluated for its ability to enhance well-known neurotoxic properties of HIV-1 proteins gp120 and Tat in primary neurons and mice. Indeed, IFN-gamma enhanced the neurotoxicity of gp120 and Tat via increased JAK/STAT signaling. Additionally, primary neurons pretreated with a JAK1 inhibitor, or those from STAT1-deficient mice, were largely resistant to the IFN- gamma-enhanced neurotoxicity of gp120 and Tat. Moreover, EGCG treatment of primary neurons from normal mice reduced IFN-gamma-enhanced neurotoxicity of gp120 and Tat by inhibiting JAK/STAT1 pathway activation. EGCG was also found to mitigate the neurotoxic properties of HIV-1 proteins in the presence of IFN-#947; in vivo. To explore the mechanism by which HIV may augment AD-like pathology, we found HIV-1 Tat protein inhibits microglial uptake of A-beta-1-42 peptide, a process enhanced by IFN-#947; and rescued by EGCG. To mimic the HAD clinical condition, we generated mice with HIV-1 Tat-induced AD-like pathology by cross-breeding HIV-1 Tat expressing mice (expressed under control of GFAP, Doxycline inducible promoter) with the PSAPP mouse model of AD. To simulate chronic Tat secretion over we used an optimized dose of 54 mg/kg/day on a biweekly basis over three months Tat significantly induced neuron degeneration and tau phosphorylation in Tat transgenic mice, dox dependently (P<0.001). Similar effects at the chronic 54 mg/kg/day dose were observed in PSAPP/Tat mice induced with dox. These mice also showed significantly more A-beta deposition (P < 0.05), neurodegeneration, neuronal apoptotic signaling, and phospho-tau than PSAPP mice (P < 0.05). In conclusion, HIV-1 Tat significantly promotes AD-like pathology in PSAPP/Tat mice. This model may provide a framework in which to identify new mechanisms involved in cognitive impairment in the HIV infected population, and possible treatments. Additional works will be needed to fully characterize the mechanism(s) of HIV- induced amyloid deposition, and to uncover viral mechanisms promoting AD-like pathology in general.