Tillverkning av portlandklinker står för ungefär fem procent av världens totala koldioxidutsläpp. Det finns därför ett allmänt intresse att minska användandet av portlandklinker. Klinkern kan antingen ersättas av andra cementerande material, eller så kan nya cementsnåla recept utformas. I den här rapporten har två cement med inmald flygaska respektive slagg från Cementa AB undersökts. För att undersöka klinkerersättnings-materialens potential har tester för tryckhållfasthet, uttorkningskrympning, bindetid, värmeutveckling och arbetbarhet utförts. Resultaten visar att skillnaderna mellan försökscementen och byggcementet är så pass små att båda bör kunna användas som byggcement. Ytterligare har ultrafiller av kalksten använts som ersättare för att minska cementhalten i betongen. Det går lika bra att delvis ersätta försökscementen med ultrafiller som det gör för byggcementet. Med cementsnåla recept och större del ersättningsmaterial finns det stora möjligheter att spara på energi och miljö. Detta borde i framtiden kunna leda till ett bättre och mer miljövänligt byggmaterial. / Manufacture of clinker is responsible for about five percent of the total global carbon dioxide emissions. Therefore, there is a general interest in reducing the use of clinker. Clinker can either be replaced by other cementitious materials, or reduced by using lean-cement recipes. This report examines two experimental cements, one with fly ash and one with slag, developed by Cementa AB. To examine the potential of clinker replacement materials, tests for compressive strength, drying shrinkage, initial setting, heat generation and workability, were performed. The results show that the differences between the experimental cements and the reference are so small that both are useable as building cements. In addition, an ultrafine filler of limestone is used as a replacement material for further reduction of the clinker content in concrete. It was also found, that it is just as efficient to partly replace the experimental cements with ultrafine filler as in the reference cement. There are great opportunities to save energy and the environment impact with both clinker-saving cement recipes and with cement replacement materials. This should lead to a better, more environmentally friendly, building material in the future.

Avloppsreningsverk är en spridningsväg för läkemedelsrester och per- och polyfluorerade alkylsubstanser (PFAS) till miljön. Genom en pågående revidering av avloppsdirektivet, vilket är ett genomförandedirektiv från EU, kommer det införas krav på reduktion av läkemedelssubstanser för att minska denna spridning. Kolonnförsök i bänkskala och pilotförsök i containerskala genomförs av Uppsala Vatten och Avfall AB och IVL Svenska Miljöinstitutet på Kungsängsverket i Uppsala för att testa tekniker för avskiljning av läkemedelsrester och andra mikroföroreningar. Syftet med detta examensarbete var att utvärdera de pågående försöken utifrån reningseffektivitet, kostnader, klimatpåverkan och utifrån de krav som kan komma att ställas i det reviderade avloppsdirektivet.  Avskiljningsgrad i avloppsvatten av perfluoroktansulfonsyra (PFOS), citalopram, diklofenak, metoprolol, oxazepam och summan av 14 svårnedbrytbara substanser vid singel- och seriedrift av granulerat aktivt kol (GAK) i kombination med efterföljande anjonbytare (AIX) undersöktes baserat på analysdata från provtagningar. För läkemedel sker reduktionen huvudsakligen med GAK. Efterföljande AIX bidrar med en kompletterande reduktion av diklofenak och PFOS. Vid byte av kol i GAK-filtret i kolonnförsöken påverkas reduktionen över efterföljande AIX, vilket syns genom desorption av diklofenak över AIX. Vid jämförelse mellan GAK-filtren i kolonnförsöken och GAK-filtren i pilotförsöken kunde liknande trender ses gällande hur snabbt avskiljningsgraden för olika substanser avtar vid ett ökat antal behandlade bäddvolymer (BV). Utvärdering av de substanser som ingår i förslaget till reviderat avloppsdirektiv utifrån de krav som ställs visade en genomsnittlig reduktion på över 80 % av sex utvalda substanser (amisulprid, citalopram, diklofenak, venlafaxin, ∑6&4-metylbenxotriazol and benzotriazol), och därmed uppfyllda reduktionskrav, fram till minst 24 000 behandlade BV i GAK-filtren och 60 300 behandlade BV i AIX-filtret. Av de undersökta teknikerna förväntas lägst kostnad och klimatpåverkan vid seriedrift av GAK i två steg om målet med reningen är att avskilja läkemedel. Om reningsmålet även inkluderar reduktion av PFOS förväntas lägst kostnad och klimatpåverkan vid seriedrift av GAK i två steg följt av AIX. / Wastewater treatment plants contribute to the spread of pharmaceuticals and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) to the environment. The urban wastewater treatment directive from the European Union is under revision, and requirements for reduction of pharmaceutical substances will be introduced to reduce the spread. Column tests in bench scale, and pilot tests in a shipping container, are being conducted by Uppsala Vatten och Avfall AB and IVL Svenska Miljöinstitutet at Kungsängsverket in Uppsala with the aim of evaluating techniques to reduce pharmaceuticals and other micropollutants. This master thesis was aimed to evaluate the tests based on treatment efficiency, costs, climate impact and based on the requirements that may be set in the revised urban wastewater treatment directive.    Reduction of perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS), citalopram, diclofenac, metoprolol, oxazepam and the sum of 14 persistent pharmaceuticals in wastewater, with granulated activated carbon (GAC) in single- and two-stage series operation in combination with a following anion exchange resin (AE), were evaluated based on data from analyzed samples. The reduction of pharmaceuticals was mostly done by GAC. AE after GAC contribute with a complementary reduction of diclofenac and PFOS. When changing the resin in the GAC-filter in the column tests, the reduction over the subsequent AE-filter was affected, which could be seen by desorption of diclofenac from AE. A comparison between the GAC-filter in the column tests and the GAC-filter in the pilot test showed similar trends regarding how fast the treatment efficiency for different substances decreased with an increased number of treated bed volumes (BV). An evaluation of the substances that are included in the proposal to the revised directive showed an average reduction of six selected substances (amisulprid, citalopram, diclofenac, venlafaxine, ∑6&4-metylbenxotriazol and benzotriazol) over 80 % for 24 000 treated BV in the GAC-filter and 60 300 treated BV in the AE-filter. GAC in a two-step series operation was the technique with lowest expected cost and climate impact if the aim of the treatment was to reduce pharmaceuticals. If the aim of the treatment also includes reduction of PFOS, the lowest expected cost and climate impact was achieved with GAC in two-step series operation followed by AE.

With increased climate goals, higher demands are placed on the construction industry to reduce emissions, making it important to develop alternatives that are economically and environmentally sustainable. Concrete is one of the most widely used materials and has high CO2-emissions, with cement production accounting for 90% of these emissions. Therefore various types of green concrete have been developed, where one of the alternative binders approved according to Swedish standards is ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS). The impact of GGBS in concrete is well documented and researched, with known advantages and disadvantages of using green concrete. The aim has been to gather relevant data of how GGBS affects the concrete performance and durability. The results show that there are tsignificant effects when using slag concrete, with GGBS providing good resistance against chemical attacks and achieving higher strength. However, there are questions regarding how sustainable GGBS actually is, especially considering how the steel industry is evolving and moving from blast furnaces to fossil free steel production in electric arc furnaces. Nevertheless, GGBS is of utmost relevance for climate improvement within the construction industry. Where the transition within the steel and construction industries opens up opportunities for the development of innovative technologies and new binders to minimize the climate footprint of cement production, thereby paving the way for a sustainable future. / Med ökade klimatmål ställs högre krav på byggindustrin att minska utsläppen, varav det är av vikt att utveckla alternativ som är ekonomiskt och miljömässigt hållbara. Betong som är ett av de mest använda materialen har höga CO2-utsläpp, där tillverkningen av cement står för 90% av utsläppen. Därför har det utvecklats olika typer av klimatförbättrad betong, där ett av de alternativa bindemedlen som är godkänt enligt svenska standarder är masugnsslagg. Slaggens inverkan på betong är väldokumenterad och undersökt, där man vet att det finns fördelar och nackdelar med att använda en klimatförbättrad betong. Syftet har varit att ta fram relevant data om hur masugnsslagg påverkar betongen prestandan och hållbarhet. Där resultatet visar att det finns påtagliga effekter med att använda slaggbetong, där slaggen ger en god beständighet mot kemiska angrepp och kan uppnå högre hållfasthet. Det existerar dock frågetecken hur hållbar masugnslaggen är, detta med avseende på hur stålindustrin utvecklar sig och kommer gå från masugnar till fossilfri ståltillverkning i ljusbågsugnar. I dagsläget är dock masugnslaggen av högsta relevans för klimatförbättringen inom byggindustrin. Där omställningen inom stål- och byggindustrin öppnar upp för utvecklingen av innovativa tekniker och nya bindemedel för att kunna minimera klimatavtrycket från cementproduktionen, och därmed bana väg för en hållbar framtid.

O presente trabalho teve por objetivo avaliar a eficiência de remoção do surfactante aniônico alquilbenzeno linear sulfonado (LAS) em reator anaeróbio de leito granular expandido - EGSB (1,5 litros) com recirculação e alimentação com meio mineral. Além de caracterizar filogeneticamente a diversidade de bactérias na presença do surfactante. O sistema foi operado em condição mesofílica em 4 etapas: (I), (II) e (IV) com TDH de 32 horas, e (III) com TDH de 26 horas. Em todas as etapas a DQO foi em média de 609 \'+ OU -\' 137 mg/L e 14 \'+ OU -\' 1,71 mg/L de LAS afluente. As maiores remoções de LAS foram verificada nas etapas II e IV, com valores de 73,6 \'+ OU -\' 5,6% e 63,6 \'+ OU -\' 6,17%, respectivamente de. Na etapa III essa remoção foi de 47,8 \'+ OU -\' 6,2%. Por meio do balanço de massa constatou-se que 56,6% do total de LAS adicionado foram removidos compreendendo 48,4% por biodegradação e 8,2% por adsorção. A remoção de matéria orgânica não foi afetada com a adição do LAS e nem pela exposição prolongada a esse surfactante. Entretanto, a estrutura do grânulo foi comprometida quando da adição do surfactante, observado pelo aumento da concentração de sólidos totais efluente de 0,049 g/L na etapa I (sem LAS), 0,128 g/L na etapa II, 0,064 g/L na etapa III e 0,038 g/L na etapa IV, quando da adição de 14 \'+ OU -\' 1,71 mg LAS/L. Além disso, foi notada diminuição do diâmetro médio dos grânulos no decorrer da operação do reator de 0,36 cm nas etapas I e III para 0,34 cm na etapa IV. Por meio da técnica de tubos múltiplos (NMP) foi constatado aumento das bactérias anaeróbias totais e diminuição das arqueias metanogênicas, em função do tempo de operação do reator. As bactérias redutoras de ferro representaram 8% da biomassa anaeróbia na etapa IV. Por meio do seqüenciamento da região 16S do RNAr para o domínio Bacteria da biomassa da extremidade superior do reator e da biomassa do leito, foi verificado semelhança com os seguintes filos Proteobacteria, Firmicutes e Synergistetes. Notou-se diferença significativa entre as bibliotecas de clones para essas duas amostras. / This study aimed to evaluate the efficiency of removal of linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS) in expanded bed reactor (1.5 liters) using granular sludge (EGSB) with recirculation and feed with mineral medium modified. The system was operated at mesophilic condition in four stages: (I) (II) and (IV) with HRT of 32 hours, and (III) with HRT of 26 hours. At all stages the COD averaged 609 \'+ OR -\' 137 mg/L and 14 \'+ OR -\' 1.71 mg/L LAS influent. The higher removals of LAS were found in stages II and IV, respectively, 73.6 \'+ OR -\' 5.6% and 63.6 \'+ OR -\' 6.17%. In stage III this removal was 47.8 \'+ OR -\' 6.2%. Through mass balance was found that 56.6% of total LAS added were removed by biodegradation comprising 48.4% and 8.2% by adsorption. The organic matter removal was not affected by the addition of LAS and not by prolonged exposure to this surfactant. However, the granule structure was compromised after the addition of surfactant, the observed increase in effluent total solids concentration of 0.049 g/L in stage I (no LAS), 0.128 g/L in stage II, 0.064 g/L in stage III and 0.038 g/L in stage IV when adding 14 \'+ OR -\' 1.71 mg/L. Furthermore, it was noticed significant decrease in mean diameter of the granules during the operation of the reactor of 0.36 cm in stages I and III to 0.34 cm in stage IV. Through the multiple tube method (MPN) was found to increase the total anaerobic bacteria and methanogenic archaea decreased depending on the time of reactor operation. Iron-reducing bacteria accounted for 8% of anaerobic bacteria total in step IV. By sequencing the 16S rRNA for the domain Bacteria biomass from the upper end of the reactor and the biomass of the bed, was found similar to the following phyla Proteobacteria, Firmicutes and Synergistetes. Significant difference was noted between the clone libraries for these two samples.

The aim of this study was to assess the strength, durability properties and corrosion resistance of concrete samples using supplementary cementitious blended materials. In this investigation, three supplementary concrete materials (SCMs) were used together with ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) to form cementitious blends at different proportions. The supplementary materials are silica fume (SF), ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) and fly ash (FA). Sixteen (16) different proportions of the cementitious blends were produced. Tests carried out on concrete samples include slump test, compressive strength, oxygen permeability, sorptivity, porosity, chloride conductivity test, resistance to chloride and sulphate attack. The electrode potentials of tested samples were also observed using electrochemical measurements. Concrete specimens prepared with 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, up to 60% of blended cements replacement levels were evaluated for their compressive strength at, 7, 14, 28, 90 and 120 days while the specimens were evaluated for durability tests at 28, and 90 days respectively. The results were compared with ordinary Portland cement concrete without blended cement. Voltage, and temperature measurements were also carried out to understand the quality of concrete. The corrosion performance of steel in reinforced concrete was studied and evaluated by electrochemical half-cell potential technique in both sodium chloride, and magnesium sulphate solutions respectively. The reinforced concrete specimens with centrally embedded 12mm steel bar were exposed to chloride and sulphate solutions with the 0.5 M NaCl and MgSO4 concentrations respectively. An impressed voltage technique was carried out to evaluate the corrosion resistance of the combination of quaternary cementitious blended cement, so as to get the combination with optimum performance. Improvement of strength, durability, and corrosion resistance properties of blended concrete samples are observed at different optimum percentages for binary, ternary and quaternary samples. The effect of cementitious blends is recognized in limiting the corrosion potential of the tested SCM concrete samples. Generally, the cementitious blends with limited quantity of SF to 10% have the potential to produce satisfactory concrete. These should however be used for low cost construction, where high quality concrete is not required. / Civil and Chemical Engineering / M. Tech. (Chemical Engineering)

O presente trabalho teve por objetivo avaliar a eficiência de remoção do surfactante aniônico alquilbenzeno linear sulfonado (LAS) em reator anaeróbio de leito granular expandido - EGSB (1,5 litros) com recirculação e alimentação com meio mineral. Além de caracterizar filogeneticamente a diversidade de bactérias na presença do surfactante. O sistema foi operado em condição mesofílica em 4 etapas: (I), (II) e (IV) com TDH de 32 horas, e (III) com TDH de 26 horas. Em todas as etapas a DQO foi em média de 609 \'+ OU -\' 137 mg/L e 14 \'+ OU -\' 1,71 mg/L de LAS afluente. As maiores remoções de LAS foram verificada nas etapas II e IV, com valores de 73,6 \'+ OU -\' 5,6% e 63,6 \'+ OU -\' 6,17%, respectivamente de. Na etapa III essa remoção foi de 47,8 \'+ OU -\' 6,2%. Por meio do balanço de massa constatou-se que 56,6% do total de LAS adicionado foram removidos compreendendo 48,4% por biodegradação e 8,2% por adsorção. A remoção de matéria orgânica não foi afetada com a adição do LAS e nem pela exposição prolongada a esse surfactante. Entretanto, a estrutura do grânulo foi comprometida quando da adição do surfactante, observado pelo aumento da concentração de sólidos totais efluente de 0,049 g/L na etapa I (sem LAS), 0,128 g/L na etapa II, 0,064 g/L na etapa III e 0,038 g/L na etapa IV, quando da adição de 14 \'+ OU -\' 1,71 mg LAS/L. Além disso, foi notada diminuição do diâmetro médio dos grânulos no decorrer da operação do reator de 0,36 cm nas etapas I e III para 0,34 cm na etapa IV. Por meio da técnica de tubos múltiplos (NMP) foi constatado aumento das bactérias anaeróbias totais e diminuição das arqueias metanogênicas, em função do tempo de operação do reator. As bactérias redutoras de ferro representaram 8% da biomassa anaeróbia na etapa IV. Por meio do seqüenciamento da região 16S do RNAr para o domínio Bacteria da biomassa da extremidade superior do reator e da biomassa do leito, foi verificado semelhança com os seguintes filos Proteobacteria, Firmicutes e Synergistetes. Notou-se diferença significativa entre as bibliotecas de clones para essas duas amostras. / This study aimed to evaluate the efficiency of removal of linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS) in expanded bed reactor (1.5 liters) using granular sludge (EGSB) with recirculation and feed with mineral medium modified. The system was operated at mesophilic condition in four stages: (I) (II) and (IV) with HRT of 32 hours, and (III) with HRT of 26 hours. At all stages the COD averaged 609 \'+ OR -\' 137 mg/L and 14 \'+ OR -\' 1.71 mg/L LAS influent. The higher removals of LAS were found in stages II and IV, respectively, 73.6 \'+ OR -\' 5.6% and 63.6 \'+ OR -\' 6.17%. In stage III this removal was 47.8 \'+ OR -\' 6.2%. Through mass balance was found that 56.6% of total LAS added were removed by biodegradation comprising 48.4% and 8.2% by adsorption. The organic matter removal was not affected by the addition of LAS and not by prolonged exposure to this surfactant. However, the granule structure was compromised after the addition of surfactant, the observed increase in effluent total solids concentration of 0.049 g/L in stage I (no LAS), 0.128 g/L in stage II, 0.064 g/L in stage III and 0.038 g/L in stage IV when adding 14 \'+ OR -\' 1.71 mg/L. Furthermore, it was noticed significant decrease in mean diameter of the granules during the operation of the reactor of 0.36 cm in stages I and III to 0.34 cm in stage IV. Through the multiple tube method (MPN) was found to increase the total anaerobic bacteria and methanogenic archaea decreased depending on the time of reactor operation. Iron-reducing bacteria accounted for 8% of anaerobic bacteria total in step IV. By sequencing the 16S rRNA for the domain Bacteria biomass from the upper end of the reactor and the biomass of the bed, was found similar to the following phyla Proteobacteria, Firmicutes and Synergistetes. Significant difference was noted between the clone libraries for these two samples.

Geopolymers are a relatively new class of materials that have many broad applications, including use as substitute for ordinary Portland cement (OPC), use in soil stabilisation, fire resistant panels, refractory cements, and inorganic adhesives. Geopolymers are an alternative binder to Portland cement in the manufacture of mortars and concrete, as its three-dimensional alumino silicate network develops excellent strength properties. Use of geopolymers in place of ordinary Portland cement is also favoured owing to the possible energy and carbon dioxide savings. Geopolymer is typically synthesized by alkali activation of pozzolanas at moderate temperatures (< 1000C). The focus of the thesis is synthesis and characterization of geopolymers as construction materials. In this context, the role of compositional factors, such as, pozzolana type (fly ash, kaolinite, metakaolinite, ground granulated blast furnace slag, red soil), alkali (sodium hydroxide is used in this study) activator concentration, Si/Al (Si= silicon, Al = aluminium) ratio of the pozzolana and environmental factors, namely, curing period and temperature are examined. Besides synthesizing geopolymers that could be an alternate to concrete as construction material, sand-sized aggregates were synthesized using geopolymer reactions. This was done as river sand is becoming scarcer commodity for use as construction material. Several compositional and environmental factors were varied in geopolymer synthesis in order to identify the optimum synthesis conditions that yield geopolymers with maximum compressive strength. Besides varying external (compositional and environmental) factors, the role of internal microstructure in influencing the compressive strength of the geopolymer was examined. Micro-structure examinations were made using X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) studies. The studies on compositional and environmental factors in geopolymer synthesis brought out several interesting results. The results firstly brought out that amongst the pozzolanas studied, ASTM class F fly ash is most suited for maximum compressive strength mobilization upon geopolymer reactions. Moderate temperature (75-1000C) was adequate to mobilize large compressive strengths. Room temperature curing needed more than 7 days before the pozzolana-NaOH paste began to develop strength. Curing period of 56 days was needed for the geopolymer to develop significant strength (19.6MPa). A similar range of compressive strength could be developed by the pozzolana-NaOH paste upon curing for 3 days at 1000C. Likewise curing the pozzolana-NaOH paste at temperatures > 1000C led to reduction in compressive strength from shrinkage and breakage of bonds. A caustic soda (NaOH) concentration of 10 M was adequate to develop maximum compressive strength of the geopolymer. Caustic soda concentrations in excess of 10 M did not result in further improvement of strength. The Si/Al ratio also contributes to strength mobilization. The Si/Al ratio of the geopolymer was enhanced by mixing commercially obtained silica gel with the pozzolana. Maximum strength mobilization was observed at Si/Al ratio = 2.45 corresponding to 6.5 % silica gel addition to the pozzolana (on dry mass basis). Comparing compressive strengths of geopolymers with varying silica gel contents, geopolymer specimens with least water content and largest dry density did not exhibit maximum compressive strength indicating that the physico-chemical (bond strength, micro-structure) played a pivotal role than physical parameters (dry density, water content) in dictating the strength of the geopolymer. MIP results showed that bulk of the porosity in fly ash geopolymer specimens is contributed by macro pores and air voids. Geopolymerization leads to bulk consumption of cenospheres in fly ash and forms polymerized matrix with network of large pores. After geopolymerization, all the main characteristic peaks of Al–Si minerals observed in fly ash persisted, suggesting that no new major crystalline phases were formed. Presence of small amount of inorganic contaminants in fly ash can drastically reduce the strength of the fly ash geopolymer. For example, 5-20 % presence of red soil reduces the strength of fly ash geopolymer by 16 to 59 %. Presence of unreacted clay coupled with less porous structure is responsible for the reduction in compressive strength of fly ash geopolymer subjected to red soil addition. MIP studies with geopolymers also revealed that there is good bearing between compressive strengths and maximum intruded volume (from MIP test) of geopolymers. For example, fly ash geopolymer specimen exhibits highest total intruded volume (0.3908 cc/g) and largest compressive strength of 29.5 MPa, while red soil geopolymer specimen exhibit least intruded volume (0.0416 cc/g) and lowest compressive strength (5.4 MPa). Further, analysis showed that specimens with larger airvoids+macropores volume had larger compressive strength, suggesting that geopolymers with more porous microstructure develop larger compressive strength. All geopolymer specimens exhibited tri-modal nature of pores i.e. macro-pore mode (entrance pore radius: 25-5000 nm), mesopore mode (entrance pore radius: 1.25 to 25 nm) and air void mode (entrance pore radius >5000 nm). The micro pores (entrance pore radius < 1.25 nm) do not contribute to porosity of the geopolymer specimens. Sand particles prepared from geopolymer reactions (FAPS or fly ash geopolymer sand) predominated in medium sized (2mm to 0.425 mm) sand particles. Their particle size distribution characteristics (uniformity coefficient and coefficient of curvature) classified them as poorly graded sand (SP). Dissolution, followed by polymerization reactions led to dense packing of the Si–O–Al–O– units that imparted specific gravity of 2.59 to FAPS particles which is comparable to that of river sand (2.61). Dissolution in strongly alkaline medium imparted strongly alkaline pH (12.5) to the FAPS particles. The river sand is characterized by much lower pH (7.9). Despite being characterized by rounded grains, the FAPS particles mobilized relatively high friction angle of (35.5o) than river sand (∅ = 28.9o). The river sand-mortar (RS-M) and fly ash geopolymer sand-mortar (FAPS-M) specimens developed similar 28-day compressive strengths, 11.6 to 12.2 MPa. Despite its higher water content, FAPS-mortar specimens developed similar compressive strength and initial tangent modulus (ITM) as river sand-mortar specimens. The FAPS-M specimen is more porous (larger intruded volume) with presence of larger fraction of coarser pores. Total porosity is majorly contributed by macro-pores (67.92%) in FAPS-M specimen in comparison to RS-M specimen (macro-pores = 33.1%). Mortar specimens prepared from FAPS and river sand exhibit similar pH of 12.36 and 12.4 respectively. FAPS-mortar specimens have lower TDS (1545 mg/L) than river sand-mortar specimens (TDS = 1889 mg/L). The RS-M and FAPS-M specimens exhibit leachable sodium levels of 0.001 g Na/g RS-M and 0.007 g Na/g-FAPS-M respectively in the water leach tests. The larger leachable sodium of FAPS-M specimen is attributed to residual sodium hydroxide persisting in the FAPS even after washing. The ultra-accelerated mortar bar test (UAMBT) shows that the percentage expansion of FAPS-M and RS-M specimens are comparable and range between 0.07 to 0.08 %.

La compréhension des mécanismes à l’origine de la formation de la porosité et de ses propriétés dans les matériaux cimentaires est un enjeu majeur pour l’évaluation de leur durabilité. L’utilisation des laitiers de haut fourneau comme liant hydraulique modifie les phases formées, leur proportion et la microstructure des mortiers et bétons. Il reste un grand nombre de verrous scientifiques à lever concernant les paramètres modifiant les valeurs de porosité, le rayon des capillaires et, par conséquent, la perméabilité. Des échantillons de mortiers ont été réalisés avec différents mélanges de CEM I et de laitiers de haut-fourneau puis différentes cures ont été utilisées afin d’évaluer l’influence de la baisse de la température ou de l’hygrométrie sur la géométrie de leur porosité. Différentes techniques d’analyses de porosité et de perméabilité ont permis de mettre en évidence principalement une augmentation de la porosité totale et libre, des rayons des capillaires et de la perméabilité avec l’augmentation de la proportion de laitier et la diminution de l’hygrométrie. Des observations au microscope électronique à balayage à pression de vapeur d’eau contrôlée ont permis de montrer le lien entre l’ouverture des capillaires et l’hygrométrie. Ainsi les forces exercées par les pressions de disjonction et les pressions capillaires déforment les hydrates de manière à fermer les capillaires avec l’augmentation de l’hygrométrie. La mise au point d’une méthode originale de cartographie de la porosité à partir de données de conductivité thermique a permis de confirmer la présence d’une peau et de déterminer son étendue. Grâce à cette technique, il est possible d’évaluer la distribution des taux de porosité au travers des échantillons. De plus, une nouvelle approche d’analyse a permis de cartographier à partir du même modèle la distribution des proportions relatives de granulats. / In order to evaluate the sustainability of cementitious materials, it is significant to understand the mechanisms linked to the formation of the porosity and to its properties. The use of ground granulated blast-furnace slag as an eco-friendly hydraulic binder influences the hydration processes therefore the phases formed, their proportion and their microstructure of mortar and concrete. Mortar samples were made to evaluate the influences of the blast-furnace slag, its grinding fineness and the influence of temperature or relative humidity of curing on the porosity. The analysis of the mortar samples with complementary measures of porosity allowed us to highlight the increase of the total and free porosity, of the threshold diameter and the absolute permeability with the increase of slag proportion used and the decrease of relative humidity. We also showed a gradual slowing down of capillary absorption kinetics called self-sealing effect and observed the relationbetween the relative humidity and the capillary aperture with a low vacuum scanning electron microscopy. Thus, the strength of disjunction and capillary pressures applied on the hydrates clog the capillaries with increasing humidity. The development of a novel method for mortar porosity mapping from thermal conductivity data allowed us to confirm the skin presence and its area. This method allows the evaluation of the porosity distribution and the relative proportion of aggregates through the sample.

Aujourd'hui, les problèmes environnementaux sont plus graves que jamais. Des mesures urgentes devraient être prises dans tous les domaines de l'activité humaine, y compris la construction. L'un des principaux contributeurs à l'impact négatif de cette industrie sur l'environnement est la fabrication du ciment Portland ordinaire (OPC) nécessaire à la production de béton et d’autres matériaux cimentaire. Malgré son importance, il présente un inconvénient important: sa production est accompagnée par de grandes quantités de gaz à effet de serre. Ils représentent 5 à 8% des émissions mondiales totales de CO2. Des matériaux cimentaires plus écologiques sont maintenant nécessaires.Des réductions significatives de l’impact sur l’environnement ne peuvent être obtenues que par l’utilisation de liants de nouvelle génération dont la fabrication ne nécessite pas beaucoup de processus et de traitements supplémentaires. L'une d'elles consiste à utiliser des déchets industriels comme liants (différentes laitiers, cendres volantes, cendres de biomasse, etc.). De cette manière, il y a non seulement une réduction de l'impact de processus tels que l'extraction minière ou la calcination, mais également le recyclage des déchets (un principe de l'économie circulaire).Une possibilité consiste à utiliser du laitier de haut fourneau (GGBS) comme base pour ce ciment de nouvelle génération. En raison de sa réactivité relativement faible avec l'eau, des suppléments (également appelés activateurs) doivent être utilisés pour favoriser le processus d'hydratation. Le carbonate de sodium (Na2CO3) est l’un des activateurs les plus prometteurs et en même temps les moins étudiés. Un tel ciment alkali-activé présente des propriétés mécaniques et de durabilité élevées, ainsi qu'une empreinte CO2 très faible. Parmi les principaux problèmes qui entravent son utilisation à l'échelle industrielle, on peut mentionner une évolution de la résistance lente à jeune âge et de rhéologie médiocre.L'objectif de la présente thèse est de développer une nouvelle conception du liant à base de laitier activé par Na2CO3, qui répondrait à toutes les exigences modernes du secteur de la construction, en particulier les propriétés rhéologiques et le développement de la résistance à jeune âge. Ce liant doit toujours répondre à au moins trois critères principaux: faible impact environnemental, faibles risques de danger dans les applications sur le terrain et être économiquement compétitif à l'échelle industrielle.Dans le présent travail, l’influence de différents paramètres tels que le rapport eau/liant, la concentration de Na2CO3, la finesse du laitier et les conditions de durcissement sur les propriétés du mélange à jeune âge et à long terme a été étudiée. Sur la base des résultats du processus d’hydratation, les additifs à base de phosphonate qui permettent de contrôler efficacement la rhéologie de tels liants ont été testé avec succès. Ils permettent non seulement de contrôler le temps de prise, mais fournissent également un effet plastifiant.En ce qui concerne l’amélioration des propriétés de résistance au jeune âge, différentes méthodes ont été utilisées. L’utilisation d’un traitement thermique ou d’une augmentation de la finesse du GGBS s’est avérée efficace. L’exploration des causes d’une longue période d’induction a montré que l’accélération pouvait également être obtenue par l’ajout d’une source de calcium à cinétique de dissolution contrôlée. En conséquence, le liant est devenu plus réactif et plus robuste à certains facteurs (concentration d’activateur, rapport eau/liant, conditions de durcissement, etc.). Pour compenser l'empreinte carbone supplémentaire de la source de calcium ajoutée, le liant a été dilué avec succès par le calcaire sans aucune dégradation des propriétés à un certain pourcentage de dilution. / Today, environmental problems are more acute than ever. Urgent measures should be taken in all spheres of human activity including construction and civil engineering. One of the major contributors of negative environmental impacts from this industry is the manufacturing of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) required for concrete and other cementitious materials production. Although its importance to economical development, it has a significant drawback - its production is accompanied by the emission of large quantities of greenhouse gases. They account for 5-8% of total world CO2 emissions. More environmentally friendly cementitious materials are now required.Significant reductions of the environmental impact can be achieved only through the use of new-generation binders whose manufacture does not require a lot of additional processes and treatments. One route is through the use of industrial wastes as binders (different slags, fly ash, biomass bottom ash, etc.). In this way there is not only a reduction in the impact of processes such as mining or calcination, but also the recycling of waste materials (circular economy principle).One possibility is to use ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) as the basis for such a new generation cement. Due to its rather low reactivity with water, additional supplements (also called activators) should be used to promote the hydration process. One of the most promising, and at the same time least studied, activators is sodium carbonate (Na2CO3). Such alkali-activated cements present high mechanical and durability properties, as well as a very low CO2 footprint. Among the main problems hindering its industrial scale adoption are their poor rheology and too slow strength gain within the first days of hardening.The objective of the present thesis is to develop a new binder based on Na2CO3 activated GGBS that would meet all the modern requirements of the construction industry, in particular regarding the rheological properties and early age strength development. In addition this binder should always respond to at least three main criteria: low environmental impact, low health and safety concerns in field applications, and be economically competitive at industrial scale.In the present work, the influence of different parameters like water/binder ratio, Na2CO3 concentration, slag fineness and curing conditions on both early age and long term properties of the mixture were studied. Based on the results of the hydration process analysis, phosphonate based additives that allow for the effective control of the rheology of such binders were successfully tested. They not only allow control over the setting time, but also provide a plasticizing effect.Regarding the improvement of early age strength properties, various methods have been used. The use of heat treatment or an increase of GGBS fineness turned out to be efficient. Exploring the causes of the long induction period has shown that acceleration can also be achieved by the addition of a calcium source with controlled dissolution kinetics. As a result, the binder became more reactive and robust against certain factors (activator concentration, Water/Binder ratio, curing conditions, etc.). To compensate for the additional carbon footprint from the added calcium source, the binder was successfully diluted by limestone without any degradation of the properties below some dilution percentages.

Betong är vårt vanligaste byggmaterial men cement står globalt sett för 5 % av CO2-emissionerna. Med detta som bakgrund så har CBI Betonginstitutet anordnat en tävling, där målet är att nå den högsta tryckhållfasthet i en resurssnål betong, med enbart 200 kg cement per m3. Syftet med denna rapport är att utvärdera tävlingen, vilket har utförts genom en omfattande litteraturstudie.  En första analys av de olika betongrecepten medförde att olika grupperingar kunde urskiljas. Ur dessa fanns det tre stycken vars resultat var väldigt bra.   Concrete Innovation Centre, som med ett lågt vct, stora mängder granulerad masugnsslagg (81 %) och lite silikastoft (5 %), uppnådde en tryckhållfasthet på 80 MPa vid 28 dygn och 95 MPa vid 56 dygn.   CBI Stockholm, som genom användandet av ulltrafint filler och silikastoft (4,8 %), uppnådde en tryckhållfasthet på 84 MPa vid 28 dygn och 98 MPa vid 56 dygn.   Thomas Concrete Group som genom att ersätta cementet med en medelmåttig mängd granulerad masugnsslagg (54 %), liten mängd flygaska (9 %), kalkfiller och silikastoft (5 %), uppnådde en tryckhållfasthet på 94 MPa vid 28 dygn och 98 MPa vid 56 dygn.  Det finns således tre recept som vidare studier kan vara rättfärdigade på, de tre ovan nämnda. Det bör tilläggas att en imponerande tryckhållfasthet på nästan 100 MPa, kan uppnås i en betong med enbart 200 kg cement per m3. / Concrete is the most frequently used construction material, but cement globally stands for 5 % of the world’s CO2 emissions. With this as a background CBI Betonginstitutet has arranged a competition, where the goal is to reach the highest compressive strength in a resource economic concrete, with only 200 kg cement per m3. The purpose of this report is to evaluate the competition, which has been done via a substantial literature study.  A first analysis of the different concrete recipes resulted in that different groups could be identified. From these there were three recipes whose result was very good.   Concrete Innovation Centre, which with a low w/c, a high amount of ground granulated blast furnace slag (81 %) and little silica fume (5 %), reached a compressive strength of 80 MPa at 28 days and 95 MPa at 56 days.   CBI Stockholm, which by the usage of ultrafine filler and silica fume (4,8 %), reached a compressive strength of 84 MPa at 28 days and 98 MPa at 56 days.   Thomas Concrete Group, which by replacing the cement with a moderate amount of ground granulated blast furnace slag (54 %), a small amount of fly ash (9 %), lime filler and silica fume (5 %), reached a compressive strength of 94 MPa at 28 days and 98 MPa at 56 days.  The conclusion is that there are three recipes that further studies are justified to continue with, the three mentioned above. It should be added that an impressive concrete compressive strength of almost 100 MPa, can be reach with the use of only 200 kg cement per m3.