Between 1/5 and 1/3 of all cases of sexual abuse in the UK involve children or young people as perpetrators (Hackett, 2004). Siblings may account for somewhere between 1/3 and 1/2 of the victims of these children (Hackett et al., 1998; Shaw et al., 2000; Beckett, 2006; Allardyce and Yates, 2009; Ryan, 2010a). There is increasing evidence that sibling sexual abuse may have very damaging consequences for victims, at least as damaging as sexual abuse by a parent (Rudd and Herzberger, 1999; Cyr et al., 2002), yet there is ongoing debate over how to differentiate harmless sex play from harmful sibling sexual abuse (Caffaro, 2014). How social workers make sense of sibling sexual behaviour is of interest in light of their role in making decisions regarding the intervention of the State in private and family life. However, research on how social workers make decisions has so far been limited to situations concerning abuse by a parent, with almost no attention having been paid to situations where a child in the family is the source of risk. This grounded theory study analyses the retrospective accounts of decisions made with respect to separation, contact, and reunification by 21 social workers in Scotland regarding 21 families in which sibling sexual behaviour has taken place. The study finds that social workers make these decisions intuitively and in relationship with children and families, influenced by a cognitive orientation, a practice mindset: ‘siblings as better together’. This mindset comprises three underlying perspectives: children as vulnerable and intending no sexual harm to others; sibling relationships as non-abusive and of intrinsic value; and parents as well-intentioned protective. These perspectives encourage a focus on immediate safety rather than emotional harm, and could be said to extend Dingwall et al.’s (1983) ‘rule of optimism’ in these cases where a child is the source of abuse within the family. In keeping with the findings of serious case reviews concerning abuse by a parent (e.g. Sinclair and Bullock, 2002; Brandon et al., 2012), there is a danger of the victim child becoming lost.

Following the exposure of abuse of people with Intellectual Disabilities (ID) at Winterbourne View, the Government launched the Transforming Care programme, to support people to transition out of hospital into their own home. A literature review revealed limited research into people with IDs experiences of transitioning. The study aimed to explore how transitions through Transforming Care were experienced. Eleven people with ID were interviewed about their experiences, with ten nominating a Key Support Person to be interviewed alongside them on a second occasion. Interviews were analysed using a Social Constructionist Grounded Theory methodology. The model demonstrated that participants experienced transitioning as a highly complex process of managing change. In hospital, how participants were seen by significant others and how they saw themselves resulted in a 'restricted story'. In moving to the community, participants and those around them were able to shift ideas about who they were, allowing for a 'widening out' of their story. Participants discussed seeking a sense of safety in new relationships, managing loss, and going through uncertainty as part of the process of transitioning. The findings of this study demonstrate that transitioning is not a single event, but an ongoing process over time. Clinical implications include ensuring that people with ID feel prepared about their move and the importance of staff understanding peoples' behaviours within a wider context.

Abstract The original aim of the study was to examine the professional growth of pre-service teachers in a reformed system of long-term module training. Professional growth was approached in terms of the cyclic model of new professionalism developed by Niemi and Kohonen, and professional growth was explored and basic social processes and phenomena identifiable in data were sought. The key phenomenon that emerged from the data of the grounded theory study, carried out in four elementary schools in the spring 1995, was an internal feeling of power, which turned out to be synonymous with the concept of empowerment. The empirical results showed the following categories to be significant for the process of empowerment: freedom, responsibility, appreciation, confidence, context, climate and positive regard. The collection, analysis and interpretation of data were carried out in accordance with the grounded theory approach, using the constant comparative method. A detailed examination of the grounded theory methodology revealed two major schools of thought: the Straussian and the Glaserian schools. The major differences between these approaches were analyzed comparatively. The description of the different stages of data analysis in the present work draws attention to the roles of the inductive-deductive Straussian procedure and the inductive Glaserian procedure. After the empirical stage, the main goal of the study was to formulate a general formal theory of human empowerment. The basic assumption of the theory of empowerment developed in this work is that empowerment is an inherently human and individual process. It is a personal and social process, in which the inner power is nontransferable to another. The theory of empowerment is based on a combination of the empirical findings and the current research findings. The theory formulated here identifies the different subprocesses of empowerment. It does not aim to indicate the measurable qualities of an empowered person or the causal factors contributing to empowerment. The subprocesses of empowerment are classified into a framework which is a modification of Ford's Motivational Systems Theory (MST) and consists of goals, capacity beliefs, context beliefs and emotions. The theory postulates that a person may remain disempowered if he or she has difficulties with some of the subprocesses that constitute the framework. It also claims that empowerment has a catalytic effect on commitment: poor empowerment results in poor commitment, while strong empowerment results in strong commitment. On the basis of the theoretical discussion, it can be concluded that empowerment is not a permanent state. It is, however, possible to strengthen empowerment through subtle and supportive measures that open up possibilities through, for example, openness, freedom of action, encouragement and through strengthening a sense of security, trust and equality. Empowerment arises out of and gives rise to human well-being. The theory of empowerment can be used as the underlying theory in projects and studies aiming to maintain human resources and prevent exhaustion. Especially people working as superiors would benefit from knowledge of the theory of empowerment in their efforts to ensure the well-being of their subordinates in workplaces. The findings of this study can probably also be utilized in supporting the empowerment of the elderly, handicapped, marginalised and unemployed individuals and chronically ill patients. Teacher educators and teacher education supervisors can utilize the empirical findings and the formulated theory in planning their work of supporting students" processes of growth and professional commitment. The theory of empowerment is valuable for both preservice and inservice teacher education in working toward the well-being of students and teachers as well as the realization of human rights. / Tiivistelmä Tutkimuksen alkuperäisenä tavoitteena oli tutkia luokanopettajaksi opiskelevien ammatillista kasvua uusimuotoisessa pitkäkestoisessa moduuliharjoittelussa. Ammatillista kasvua tutkittiin 1)  Hannele Niemen ja Viljo Kohosen kehittämän uusprofessionaalisen syklisen mallin pohjalta, ja ammatillisesta kasvusta etsittiin 2) aineistopohjaisesti perussosiaalisia prosesseja ja ilmiöitä. Neljällä kenttäharjoittelukoululla keväällä 1995 toteutetussa grounded theory -tutkimuksessa aineistosta nousi ammatillisen kasvun ydinilmiöksi sisäinen voimantunne, joka osoittautui synonyymiksi empowerment-käsitteelle. Tutkimuskirjallisuuden perusteella empowerment on voimaantumista. Empiiristen tulosten mukaan kategoriat vapaus, vastuu, arvostus, luottamus, konteksti, ilmapiiri ja myönteisyys ovat merkityksellisiä voimaantumisprosessissa. Havainnointiaineiston kerääminen, analysointi ja tulkinta toteutettiin grounded theory -metodologian mukaisesti jatkuvan vertailun menetelmällä. Grounded theory -metodologiaan tutustumisessa selvisi, että metodologian sisälle on muodostunut kaksi koulukuntaa: straussilainen ja glaserilainen. Suuntausten näkemyseroista on tehty vertaileva analyysi. Tässä tutkimuksessa kerätyn aineiston analyysiprosessin vaiheiden kuvaamisessa on otettu huomioon induktiivis-deduktiivisen straussilaisen ja induktiivisen glaserilaisen menettelyn osuudet. Tutkimuksen päätavoitteeksi muodostui empiirisen vaiheen jälkeen yleisen formaalin teorian rakentaminen ihmisen voimaantumisesta. Kehitetyn voimaantumisteorian keskeisenä ajatuksena on se, että voimaantuminen lähtee ihmisestä itsestään. Se on henkilökohtainen ja sosiaalinen prosessi, eikä voimaa voi antaa toiselle. Voimaantumisteoria on rakentunut empiiristen tulosten ja olemassa olevan tutkimustiedon yhdistämisen tuloksena. Muodostettu teoria jäsentää voimaantumisen osaprosesseja. Se ei pyri osoittamaan voimaantuneen ihmisen mitattavissa olevia ominaisuuksia eikä voimaantumiseen vaikuttavia kausaalitekijöitä. Voimaantumisen osaprosessit luokitellaan Martin Fordin motivoivien järjestelmien teoriasta (MST) sovellettuun kehikkoon päämäärät, kykyuskomukset, kontekstiuskomukset ja emootiot. Voimaantumisteoriassa väitetään, että ihminen voi jäädä voimaantumattomaksi (disempowered), jos hänellä on ympäristössään vaikeuksia tähän kehikkoon jäsentyvissä osaprosesseissa. Teoriassa myös väitetään, että voimaantuminen vaikuttaa katalyytin tavoin sitoutumisprosessiin: heikko voimaantuminen johtaa heikkoon sitoutumiseen ja vahva voimaantuminen johtaa vahvaan sitoutumiseen. Teoreettisen tarkastelun perusteella voidaan todeta, että voimaantuneisuus ei ole pysyvä tila. Voimaantumista voidaan kuitenkin yrittää tukea hienovaraisilla ja mahdollistavilla toimenpiteillä, esimerkiksi avoimuudella, toimintavapaudella, rohkaisemisella sekä turvallisuuteen, luottamukseen ja tasa-arvoisuuteen pyrkimisellä. Voimaantuminen on yhteydessä ihmisen hyvinvointiin. Voimaantumisteorian arvioidaan voivan toimia teoriataustana voimavarojen ylläpitämistä edistävissä ja uupumusta estävissä hankkeissa ja tutkimuksissa. Erityisesti esimiesasemassa oleville ihmisen voimaantumisprosessien tuntemisen ajatellaan olevan hyödyksi, kun he pyrkivät mahdollistamaan alaistensa hyvinvoinnin työpaikalla. Tätä tutkimusta arvioidaan voitavan hyödyntää myös mm. vanhusten, vammaisten, syrjäytyneiden, työttömien ja pitkäaikaissairaiden voimaantumisen tukemisessa. Opettajankouluttajat ja opetusharjoittelun ohjaajat voivat hyödyntää empiirisiä tuloksia ja tuotettua teoriaa suunnitellessaan työtänsä opiskelijan kasvu- ja sitoutumisprosessien tukemisen näkökulmasta. Oppilaiden ja opettajien hyvinvoinnin sekä ihmisoikeuksien toteutumisen vuoksi voimaantumisprosessien tuntemiseen tulisi kiinnittää huomiota sekä opettajien peruskoulutuksessa että täydennyskoulutuksessa.

The overall aim of the five studies that make up this thesis is to elucidate constructions of being old from the perspectives of gender and ethnicity. One of the studies uses quantitative data and four use qualitative data. The sample in study I consisted of 125 participants from the Umeå 85+ study, aged 85 to 103 years old, who were able to use Likert scales in responding to questions. Studies II and III involved content analysis of interviews with old persons scoring on the extremes of the resilience scale. In study IV, interviews with nine Sami women were analysed using grounded theory. In study V, four interview situations were subjected to discourse analysis. Study I showed statistically significant correlations between the scales measuring resilience, sense of coherence, purpose in life and self-transcendence. These scales were supposed to measuring a common dimension, which is here interpreted as “inner strength”. There was a significant correlation between women’s “inner strength” and perceived mental health. The femininities found were associated with “being connected”, “being an actor”, “living in the shadow of others” and “being alienated”. The masculinities found were associated with “being in the male centre”, “striving to maintain the male facade” and “being related”. The femininity associated with “being an actor” and the masculinity associated with “being in the male centre” were pronounced in those participants assessed as having high resilience. Old Sami woman were found to be balancing within various discourses, including being a reindeer owner versus not owning reindeer, being Sami versus being Swedish, speaking in Sami versus speaking in Swedish, dreaming about the past versus looking to the future, being equal to men versus living in the shadow of the male herders, and changing for survival versus striving to retain uniqueness as a Sami. Study V revealed that shifts in power between the interviewer and the interviewed can be related to the discourses of age, gender, education, body, ethnicity and ideology. This thesis presents a complex picture of what it means to be among the oldest old. The ageing, gendered and ethicised selves cannot be seen as socially and culturally fixed. For the women, the femininity expressed in “being connected” involved being satisfied, content and having positive relationships. “Being an actor” involved a stress on the person’s own strength and own choices. The femininities experienced as “living in the shadow of others” and “being alienated” generated narratives about dissociation and loneliness. For the men, it seemed important to relate to themselves and to other men. However, the masculinity expressed in “being related” involved an alternative form of masculinity, focusing on the importance of daily work, new relationships, and reflecting on the meaning of life. The Sami women showed strength in being able to position themselves between various discourses, but their narratives also showed tender sadness when they spoke of their longing for the past and for their mother tongue. The reflection on how narratives are constructed by both the interviewed and the interviewer in relation to their access to various discourses of age, gender, education, ethnicity and ideology in different interview situations can be important for increasing awareness of the role of these discourses. Various ways of constructing femininities and masculinities must be studied if we are to avoid ageism developing in society. Analyzing and reflecting on the importance of age, gender and ethnicity from a constructivist perspective may reduce stereotypical descriptions of the oldest old.

Background: Alcohol Related Brain Damage (ARBD) is an umbrella term used to describe the range of effects that long-term consumption of alcohol can have on the structure and function of the brain. Despite the increasing prevalence of ARBD, there is a lack of research in this area, and as a result, there are no current guidelines and few services available for the treatment of this condition. There is therefore a need to increase the evidence base in this area, which will assist in the understanding, and ultimately treatment, of ARBD. Aims: This thesis consists of two parts. The first is a systematic review journal article which asks the question: “What is the impact of alcohol-abuse on memory function within the first three weeks of alcohol withdrawal?” The second part is a qualitative research project which aims to develop a grounded theory regarding the patient experience of ARBD, identifying and highlighting themes and concepts that are central to the experience. Methods: For the systematic review, four databases were searched. Studies that were included in the review had to have participants with alcohol-dependence; abstinence of less than or equal to three weeks; and to have undergone some form of neuropsychological assessment of memory function. Data from 15 articles were extracted and assessed for quality. For the qualitative study, participants (n=10) were interviewed regarding their experiences of ARBD and the data was then analysed using grounded theory methodology. Results: The results of the systematic review were somewhat ambiguous with some studies reporting impairments in verbal and visual memory, while other studies found no impairments. Episodic memory deficits were present in all studies reviewed. The results of the qualitative study propose a tentative model which describes “transformation through adaptation”. This model hypothesises that successful negotiation of the journey through ARBD hinges on the adaptations that need to be made in order to progress towards transformation. The model is understood in the framework of a number of phases, “Being diagnosed with ARBD, “Focusing on abstinence”, “Taking ownership of life with ARBD” and “Creating a valuable life”, all of which exist within a framework of being supported by specialist services. Conclusions and implications: The systematic review demonstrated some support for deficits in visual and episodic memory within the first three weeks of abstinence, while it appeared that verbal memory was relatively preserved. The heterogeneity of the studies, coupled with the methodological variability, meant that all conclusions need to be considered as tentative, and be interpreted with caution. The main difficulties with interpretation were to do with the confounding factors often found within this client group. The results reinforce the concept of tailored treatment programmes for individuals due to the large variability of the effect of alcohol (and other factors). The qualitative study proposes a model that shows how adaptation appears to play a key role in the successful negotiation of a diagnosis of ARBD. The study describes a series of categories that can be used as a framework to identify and support the changes that are necessary for recovery and reintegration. The value in this study is that the results are directly attributable to individuals who have been diagnosed, and are now successfully living, with ARBD.

The mutual aid of Alcoholics Anonymous helps more people with alcohol-related problems than all forms of clinical treatment combined. Yet, efforts to understand AA’s action have been conducted, almost exclusively, from a clinical perspective. Thus far, the literature representing Alcoholics Anonymous from the perspective of its members is very limited. This study uses qualitative content analysis of the AA literature and a grounded theory approach to AA’s fellowship to provide an insider’s perspective of change processes associated with AA involvement. This understanding of the AA literature posits that Alcoholics Anonymous involvement results in life improvement, changes in spirituality, improved well-being, an acceptance of powerlessness over alcohol and a sense of fellowship. This understanding of AA’s fellowship posits that Alcoholics Anonymous involvement results in increased life meaning, reduced insecurity, loneliness, anxiety and shame.

My research explored the knowledge of occupational therapists practising in forensic mental health. There is no ‘gold standard’ evidence in this practice area but other forms of evidence, including experience and “intuition”, are used in practice. My research aimed to identify the knowledge formed from and used in this practice area. My research design used qualitative methodology that was informed by American pragmatist, social constructivist and post-modern theory. In particular, I used grounded theory and situational analysis to generate and to analyse the data. The practitioners were three occupational therapists working in various forensic services in one London based NHS trust. My data was generated longitudinally over eight to twelve months, where the practitioners participated in email and face-to-face interviews. The critical incident technique and the critical decision method enabled practitioners to describe and explain their knowledge about one patient with whom they were working over the interviews. The practitioners also reflected upon participating in the research. My findings demonstrated that the practitioners’ knowledge was created from practice through the interaction of three categories. First, steps of practice were structures through which knowledge was generated about the service user. Second were rules for practice where expectations had to be met. Unpredictable situations and knowledge gaps prevented meeting expectations, so new knowledge was created from practice to meet them. The third category was a blend of the practitioners’ personal and professional experiences and emotions. Practitioners created a connection with service users in order to build a therapeutic relationship, alongside creating a nuanced narrative with their service users, which helped to build empathy. In conclusion, the practitioners in my research used various forms of knowledge in practice. My thesis contributes to existing scholarship by supporting a practice epistemology approach. Thus knowledge for occupational therapy in forensic mental health is created from practice.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / The purpose of this study was to explore the perceptions of the teacher educators about the merger between the University of Namibia and Namibia’s former Colleges of Education with regards to the merger's capacity to improve quality teacher education. The focus of the study differed from the various merger studies in that theirs has mainly been on technical issues of mergers to interpret merger capacity to improve change. Of importance about this focus is that the views of teacher educators were deemed important because of their 'agency' in the merger and its capacity to improve teacher education quality. The grounded theory of Strauss and Corbin of 1998 framed the study. The key question of the study was: "what are the perceptions of teacher educators about the merger of the former colleges of education with the University of Namibia's and the capacity to improve teacher education quality in the country?" A case study methodology was employed in which semi-structured questions were used to collect data. In addition, the study also employed observations and document analysis as sources of data.The key finding of the study was that all the participants' perceptions were that the merger has the capacity to improve the quality of teacher education in Namibia. The core of this finding serves as evidence of the complexities of mergers, particularly in terms of how participants perceive the merger's capability of improving quality. Firstly, the perceptions related to the contexts in which the participant teacher educators found themselves. Furthermore, the perceptions appeared to be associated with various contextual needs experienced by participants in the various institutions. The study analysis further suggested that the needs related to issues associated with input, process and output. These findings laid the ground for an emergent theory for understanding of teacher educators’ perceptions about the mergers. A conclusion drawn from the above findings were that the Maslow Hierarchy of Need Theory (with its biological/physiological needs, safety needs, belongingness and love, esteem needs, and self-actualization) provide better understanding of perceptions about mergers.

There is a general lack of in-depth research into what it means (and takes) to be a member of a small group. Firstly, research is often focused on leadership rather than on membership and, secondly, empirical research tends to focus on studying group outcomes rather than group process. The purpose of this research was to explore the forces involved in being a member of a small group and to develop a research method for doing so. A post foundational philosophical stance was adopted in terms of which the need both for discovering universal truths as well as gaining in-depth understanding within context, was pursued. A constructivist grounded theory design was adapted by developing a theoretical lens with which to facilitate the coding and analysis of the data. This theoretical lens was based on an integration of Kurt Lewin’s field theory; Wilfred Bion’s psychoanalytic group-as-a-whole approach; S.H. Foulkes’s group analytic approach and Yvonne Agazarian’s theory of living human systems. The data consisted of transcribed video material of ten 90-minute sessions conducted with a training group of 9 members; written reflections by the group members on their group experience as well as field notes taken by the researcher during the training group sessions. Through the application of the theoretical lens to the data, member behaviour was coded both deductively and inductively, thus allowing the data to speak for itself whilst maintaining a rigorous analytical structure. The result of this exploration was an emerging field theory of group membership which postulates the group member as existing within a field of forces (both pro- and anti-group) operating between the triangular ‘polarities’ of belonging, individuality and task. The theoretical and practical implications of this field theory are discussed in terms of their relevance to both grounded theory research methodology and group psychology. Finally, it is shown how this research can be used as a foundation from which to conduct a multitude of future studies into group processes from the perspective of the group member. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2012. / Human Resource Management / unrestricted

What are the long and short term effects of working with suicidal clients on the person-centred counsellor? As suicide remains a major public health issue with the latest figures for the UK of 5706, an increase from 5377 in 2007 (ONS, 2010), suicide prevention strategies remain high on the public health sector agenda. With this statement in mind, and financial resources and funding at a low, an increased demand on psychological therapies can be assumed. As a result, the impact on individual practitioners will most likely intensify, personally and professionally. This research aims to explore the extent the impact may have, personally and professionally on the person-centred counsellor. The study was structured using semi-structured interviews with a purposeful sample of ten person-centred counsellors. A constant comparative method was applied to analyse transcribed data, from which four main categories emerged: ‘Experiencing the Therapeutic Encounter’, ‘Experiencing the Self within the Therapeutic Encounter’, ‘Seeking Solace – finding understanding’ and ‘Counsellor’s Grounding through Knowledge’, each subsumed by several lower order categories, from which a core category ‘The Counsellor’s Resilience’ emerged. The findings propose that, although the participants in this study were at times deeply affected, both personally and professionally, by their clients’ stories, they were able to reclaim their strength through seeking and finding support from supervisors, peers, holistic self-care and tacit knowledge, gained through personal experience and understanding. Formal training was identified as lacking in counselling training courses. The implications of the findings and recommendations are discussed.