High surface area gold electrodes are very good substrates for biosensors, catalysis and drug delivery. Their performance is characterized by good sensitivity, low detection limit and high signal. As a result, extensive research is being carried out in this field using different approaches of fabrication to generate high surface area porous electrodes of different morphology, pore size and structure. The morphology of the electrodes can be changed based on whether the approach involves a template or not, types of metal deposition, method and time of dealloying etc. The deposition of metal can be carried out using various approaches such as electroless deposition, electrochemical deposition, combination of electroless and electrochemical deposition, pulsed laser deposition, laser deposition etc. These electrodes can then be used in electrochemical measurements and their performance compared with an unmodified flat gold electrode. We used a template based approach, combined with electrochemical deposition, to fabricate macroporous, macro-nanoporous and nanoporous gold electrodes. To generate nanopores, in case of macro-nanoporous and nanoporous gold electrodes, we used gold-silver alloy electrochemical deposition method, followed by chemical dealloying. The morphology of electrodes was later observed under HITACHI Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and their elemental composition studied using HITACHI Energy Dispersion Spectroscopy (EDS). The electrodes were used in electrochemical measurements and their voltammetric data was compared. These measurements involved the determination of surface area, faradaic current using redox molecules with fast and slow electron transfer and charging current in KCl. Surface adsorption of dopamine was studied and detection of dopamine in the presence of ascorbic acid was carried out.

Hydrogen storage remains a major technological barrier to the widespread adoption of hydrogen as an energy source. Organic polymers offer one potential route to useful hydrogen storage materials. Recently, Frechet and his coworkers described a series of hypercrosslinked polymers with high surface area and studied their surface properties and hydrogen storage capacities. McKeown and his coworkers studied a class of materials termed Polymers of Intrinsic Microporosity (PIMs) which are also based on a "hypercrosslinked" concept. We enchained N-substituted maleimide and functionalized stilbene alternating copolymers into a "hypercrosslinked system" to achieve high rigidity, high surface areas, high aromatic content and good thermal stability. Hypercrosslinked copolymers of N-(3-methylphenyl)maleimide (3MPMI), 4-methyl stilbene (4MSTBB), vinylbenzyl chloride (VBC) and divinyl benzene (DVB) were synthesized. Scanning electron micrographs (SEM) show the copolymers are porous and some examples have shown surface areas over 1200 m²/g. We have also found the incorporation of 3MPMI and 4MSTBB improves the thermal stability and raises the glass transition temperature of the copolymer. However, the incorporation of 3MPMI and 4MSTBB decreases the hypercrosslinking density and therefore causes a decrease in the copolymer surface area. The systematic study of styrene (STR) – vinylbenzyl chloride (VBC) – divinyl benzene (DVB) networks indicates that a low density of chloromethyl groups leads to a decrease in surface area. Therefore, we are continuing to investigate other monomers, such as N-substituted maleimide and functionalized stilbene containing chloromethyl groups, in order to enhance thermal stability while maintaining surface area. In order to increase the enthalpy of hydrogen adsorption and thus raise the temperature of hydrogen storage, the monomer N,N-dimethyl-N',N'-diethyl-4,4'-diaminostilbene (4,4'DASTB-3MPMI) which contains electron donating groups was incorporated into hypercrosslinked polymer particles. Hypercrosslinked polymer (4,4'DASTB-3MPMI)1.0(VBC)98.5(DVB).50 exhibits a surface area of 3257 m²/g. / Master of Science

Nanomaterials have attracted substantial attention in the area of catalysis due to the unique properties they exhibit such as high surface areas, intricate pore networks and unique morphologies. TiO2 has attracted attention as a catalyst since the discovery of its high photocatalytic activity by Fuishima and Honda in 1972. Given its high thermal stability, low cost, low environmental impact, and versatility, TiO2 is a widely used commercial catalyst and catalyst support. TiO2 is used in many applications such as photocatalysis is also an excellent support material for noble metals in a number of oxidative synthesis and pollution-control reactions. Though TiO2 is a widely used catalyst support, currently available commercial titanias often have low surface area and poor thermal and hydrothermal stability. While several methods reported in literature produce materials of higher surface area and more ideal porosity relative to commercially available titanias, these procedures generally involve inherent drawbacks including time-consuming, complicated, and expensive processes that are not industrially viable. Cost-effective, large-scale preparations of stable, high surface area, mesoporous TiO2 need to be developed. The work in this dissertation focuses on (1) producing high surface area stabilized TiO2 supports of controlled pore diameters and (2) the preparation of well dispersed Pt on these supports using industrially viable processes. The effects of dopants Al, La, Si, and Zr on the stability, surface area, and porosity of anatase TiO2 supports were investigated. Results show that dopants increased the surface area and thermal stability of anatase through structural modifications and grain growth inhibition. Stabilized titanias produced by this method demonstrated equivalent or higher thermal stability and surface area compared with pure anatase and previously reported materials after treatment at 400°C and 700°C including 22 mol% Al-TiO2 calcined at 400°C which had a surface area of 479 ± 39 m2/g, a pore volume of 0.46 ± 0.04 cm3/g, and a pore diameter of 2.9 ± 0.2 nm. Ten synthesis variables were examined and optimized using statistically designed experiments (DOEs). Equations were developed to predict the conditions to obtain the highest surface area and pore volume at the desired pore diameter and predict the pore diameter range that may be obtained for aluminum-modified anatase TiO2. Confirmation trials closely matched predicted surface areas, pore volumes, and pore diameters in all but one trial, demonstrating the power of DOEs in identifying and controlling synthesis variables in relatively few experiments. The structure of Al-modified anatase TiO2 was analyzed to determine the mechanism of Al stabilization. Surface Al stabilized TiO2 by lowering anatase surface energy, stabilizing planes of high surface energy which would otherwise join to achieve stabilization. Al in TiO2 lattice vacancies stabilized TiO2 through increasing lattice strain and limiting mass transport necessary for grain growth. Results demonstrate the importance of structure analysis of doped nanomaterials in the development of stabilized catalysts and catalyst supports. An industrially viable, one-pot synthesis of Pt supported on 22 mol% Al-modified anatase is presented. Pt dispersions as high as 54% (one-pot method) and 59% (DI method) have been obtained. Results show that this one-pot method and the DI method using our Al-modified supports are promising syntheses of highly dispersed Pt catalysts and demonstrate that the alumina-stabilized anatase support is superior to other many available anatase supports.

Το π–κυμένιο (p–ισοπρόπυλο τολουόλιο) είναι ένα πολύ σημαντικό προϊόν με μεγάλο εμπορικό ενδιαφέρον, καθώς αποτελεί κύριο συστατικό πολλών καλλυντικών, αρωμάτων, φαρμακευτικών προϊόντων, καθώς και την πρώτη ύλη για την παραγωγή της p–κρεσόλης. Η τρέχουσα διαδικασία παραγωγής του π–κυμενίου είναι η κατά Friedel–Crafts αλκυλίωση του τολουολίου με προπυλένιο ή προπανόλη–2, η οποία χρησιμοποιεί μεγάλες ποσότητες επιβλαβών οξέων, προκαλώντας πολλά προβλήματα χειρισμού στους εργαζόμενους με αυτό, προβλήματα διάβρωσης και προβλήματα διάθεσης των παραγόμενων αποβλήτων. Τα τελευταία χρόνια, η Πράσινη Χημεία έχει παρουσιασθεί ως η νέα προσέγγιση της Χημείας για την πρόληψη της μόλυνσης του περιβάλλοντος, καθώς και του σχεδιασμού χημικών προϊόντων και διεργασιών που είναι περισσότερο φιλικά προς το περιβάλλον. Η κατάλυση αποτελεί μία από τις κύριες αρχές, αλλά ταυτόχρονα και εργαλείο της Πράσινης Χημείας. Πιο συγκεκριμένα η ετερογενής κατάλυση, που εξυπηρετεί τους στόχους της Πράσινης Χημείας, λόγω της εξάλειψης της ανάγκης διαχωρισμού του παραγόμενου προϊόντος από τον καταλύτη. Επίσης, μία άλλη βασική παράμετρος της Πράσινης Χημείας είναι η χρήση της βιομάζας, ως ανανεώσιμη πρώτη ύλη, με σκοπό την παραγωγή ενέργειας και χημικών προϊόντων. Στην παρούσα εργασία, μελετάται η δυνατότητα καταλυτικής παραγωγής π–κυμενίου, βασιζόμενη στις αρχές της Πράσινης Χημείας. Για το σκοπό αυτό χρησιμοποιείται ως αντιδρών το α–λεμονένιο, ένα μονοτερπένιο το οποίο αποτελεί ανανεώσιμη πρώτη ύλη, καθώς είναι παραπροϊόν της βιομηχανίας χυμών λεμονιού και πορτοκαλιού, καθώς και της βιομηχανίας χάρτου και πολτού. Πιο αναλυτικά, μελετήθηκε η καταλυτική συμπεριφορά οξειδίων με μεγάλη ειδική επιφάνεια, όπως η SiO2, το MCM–41, ο ζεόλιθος NaY, η γ–Al2O3 και δύο δείγματα TiO2, με διαφορετικές ειδικές επιφάνειες, στην αντίδραση μετατροπής του λεμονενίου προς π–κυμένιο. Επίσης, ερευνήθηκε η επίδραση στη διεργασία τόσο της θερμοκρασίας της αντίδρασης, όσο και της σύστασης της ατμόσφαιρας κάτω από την οποία διεξαγόταν η αντίδραση. Τα πειράματα διεξήχθησαν σε αντιδραστήρα σταθερής κλίνης – ατμοσφαιρικής πίεσης, ενώ για την ανάλυση των λαμβανόμενων προϊόντων χρησιμοποιήθηκε αέριος χρωματογράφος – φασματογράφος μάζας (GC–MS). Από τους καταλύτες που μελετήθηκαν ο πιο αποτελεσματικός αποδείχθηκε η τιτάνια με τη σχετικά μεγάλη ειδική επιφάνεια ακολουθούμενη από την τιτάνια με την χαμηλότερη ειδική επιφάνεια, τον ζεόλιθο NaY και τη γ–Al2O3. Τόσο η σίλικα όσο και το MCM–41 παρουσίασαν μάλλον αμελητέα δραστικότητα. Επίσης, παρατηρήθηκε ότι η απόδοση σε π–κυμένιο αυξανόταν γενικά με τη θερμοκρασία, ενώ δεν επηρεαζόταν πρακτικά από την ατμόσφαιρα που διεξαγόταν η αντίδραση. Τέλος, στους 300 οC και χρησιμοποιώντας την τιτάνια με τη σχετικά μεγάλη ειδική επιφάνεια ως καταλύτη επιτεύχθηκε 90% απόδοση για το π–κυμένιο και 100% μετατροπή για το λεμονένιο. Η αυξημένη απόδοση της τιτάνιας αποδόθηκε σε επιτυχή συγκερασμό ανάμεσα στη σχετικά μεγάλη οξύτητα Brönsted και στη σχετικά εύκολη μεταβολή του λόγου Ti(IV)/Ti(III) κατά τη διάρκεια της αντίδρασης. Τα κινητικά αποτελέσματα επέτρεψαν να γραφεί ένα κινητικό σχήμα για τη διεργασία. / P–cymene is a very important product with great commercial interest because of its use as a main ingredient of cosmetics, perfumes and pharmaceutical products as well as raw material for the production of p–cresol. Current production is achieved by using the Friedel–Crafts reaction of toluene with propylene or propanol–2 which uses large quantities of harmful acids which, in turn, leads to industrial accidents, corrosion problems and the general difficulty of handling toxic wastes. A new concept of chemistry has been developed for confronting environmental problems. Green Chemistry is related to products and processes that are environmentally friendly. One of the basic tools of Green Chemistry is catalysis, mainly heterogeneous catalysis, because it allows the easy separation of the catalysts used from the final product. Moreover, following the principles of the Green Chemistry, biomass should be used in the production of renewable energy and chemical products. The present Thesis deals with the catalytic production of p–cymene based on the principles of Green Chemistry. In particular, we use a–limonene, by–product of the juice of orange and lemon industry as well as the paper industry, to produce p–cymene. A number of oxides with large specific surface area, such as SiO2, MCM–41, zeolite NaY, γ–Al2O3 and two samples of TiO2, were studied as catalysts. The effect of the reaction temperature and the composition of the atmosphere were also studied. All experiments were conducted on a fixed bed micro–reactor operating under atmospheric pressure coupled with an on–line Gas Chromatograph–Mass Spectrometer (GC – MS). The titania with the relatively high specific surface area was proved to be the most efficient catalyst among those studied. The following activity series has been obtained: «high surface area titania > small surface area titania > zeolite NaY > γ–Al2O3 > MCM–41 > SiO2». Negligible activity is exhibited by MCM–41 and SiO2. The percentage yield for p–cymene increases with temperature whereas is practically independent from the carrier gas. Very high percentage yield for p–cymene was obtained at 300οC over the high specific surface area titania (~90%). Complete transformation of a–limonene was obtained over the above catalyst at the same temperature. The very high activity obtained over this catalyst was attributed to good compromise between high acidity and easy transformation of the ratio Ti(IV)/Ti(III) during reaction. The kinetic results allow the clarification of the reaction scheme.

In the present work new methods were developed for preparation of novel nanosized and nanostructured ceramic materials. Ordered mesoporous silica SBA-15 was found to be useful as a hard template for the nanocasting of silicon carbide and allowed the preparation of high temperature stable mesoporous silicon carbide ceramics. Chemical vapor infiltration of SBA-15 with dimethyldichlorosilane at elevated temperatures yields SiC/SBA-15 nanocomposites. The subsequent HF treatment of those composites resulted in silica removal and preparation of mesoporous silicon carbide with surface areas between 410 and 830 m2g-1 and high mesopore volume (up to 0.9 cm3g-1). The pore size (between 3 and 7nm in diameter) and surface area of mesoporous silicon carbide were controlled by adjusting the infiltration conditions (time, atmosphere). The mesoporous silicon carbide prepared via this method showed high structural thermal stability at 1300 oC, exceeding that of the SBA-15 template. However, the ordering on the mesoscopic scale was low. Nevertheless, highly ordered mesoporous silicon carbide materials were obtained via polymer melt infiltration in SBA-15. The low molecular weight polycarbosilane used as a preceramic precursor was converted at 1300 oC to silicon carbide inside the SBA-15, and after subsequent silica removal by HF, a highly ordered mesoporous material was obtained. Ordered mesoporous silicon carbide prepared by the methods reported here, may be an interesting material as a support due to its high temperature stability, chemical inertness, high thermal conductivity and semiconductor properties. In contrast to the nanocasting approach, based on the complete pore filling, also a new in-situ procedure for the preparation of finely dispersed metal and metal oxide particles inside ordered mesoporous silica was developed. A swelling agent (toluene) was used to deliver a hydrophobic platinum precursor into the surfactant micelles before addition of silica source. Such an in-situ method resulted in very high platinum incorporation (80-100%), not achieved for any other in-situ preparation procedures. Additionally, the presence of platinum allowed to decrease the template removal temperatures. Moreover, the method was also extended to other metal or metal oxide/ordered mesoporous silica systems. This may be especially interesting for the preparation of ordered mesoporous materials with low melting points, where typically the structure collapses during the high temperature calcinations process. The in-situ synthesized V2O5/MCM-41 materials were used to prepare VN/MCM-41 composites via nitridation in ammonia at 800oC. This method allowed to prepare highly dispersed, X-ray amorphous vanadium nitride species, with high activity in the propane dehydrogenation. Compared to nitridation of supported vanadium oxide prepared via the ex-situ procedure, in-situ synthesized materials showed similar catalytic activity, in spite of having significantly lower vanadium loading. As an alternative for the preparation of supported nitride materials, a novel preparation procedure of bulk not supported nanocrystalline vanadium nitride with high surface area was presented. Instead of pure oxide powder (which was typically used in the preparation of high surface area vanadium nitride catalysts), a macroporous amine intercalated V2O5 was used as the starting material. The obtained nitride consisted of small crystallites and had a surface area up to 198 m2g-1. Moreover, this foam-derived VN showed significantly improved activity as a catalyst in propane dehydrogenation. This novel preparation method could also be extended to other systems such as ternary VMoxNy nitrides.

A new mesoporous MOF, Zn4O(bpdc)(btctb)4/3 (DUT-32), containing linear ditopic (bpdc2−; 4,4′-biphenylenedicarboxylic acid) and tritopic (btctb3−; 4,4′,4′′-[benzene-1,3,5-triyltris(carbonylimino)]tris-benzoate) linkers, was synthesised. The highly porous solid has a total pore volume of 3.16 cm3 g−1 and a specific BET surface area of 6411 m2 g−1, adding this compound to the top ten porous materials with the highest BET surface area.

A new mesoporous MOF, Zn4O(bpdc)(btctb)4/3 (DUT-32), containing linear ditopic (bpdc2−; 4,4′-biphenylenedicarboxylic acid) and tritopic (btctb3−; 4,4′,4′′-[benzene-1,3,5-triyltris(carbonylimino)]tris-benzoate) linkers, was synthesised. The highly porous solid has a total pore volume of 3.16 cm3 g−1 and a specific BET surface area of 6411 m2 g−1, adding this compound to the top ten porous materials with the highest BET surface area.

Using an optimized KOH activation procedure we prepared highly porous graphene scaffoldmaterials with SSA values up to 3400m² g⁻¹ and a pore volume up to 2.2 cm³ gˉ¹, which are among the highest for carbon materials. Hydrogen uptake of activated graphene samples was evaluated in a broad temperature interval (77–296 K). After additional activation by hydrogen annealing the maximal excess H2 uptake of 7.5 wt% was obtained at 77 K. A hydrogen storage value as high as 4 wt% was observed already at 193 K (120 bar H₂), a temperature of solid CO₂, which can be easily maintained using common industrial refrigeration methods.

In the present work new methods were developed for preparation of novel nanosized and nanostructured ceramic materials. Ordered mesoporous silica SBA-15 was found to be useful as a hard template for the nanocasting of silicon carbide and allowed the preparation of high temperature stable mesoporous silicon carbide ceramics. Chemical vapor infiltration of SBA-15 with dimethyldichlorosilane at elevated temperatures yields SiC/SBA-15 nanocomposites. The subsequent HF treatment of those composites resulted in silica removal and preparation of mesoporous silicon carbide with surface areas between 410 and 830 m2g-1 and high mesopore volume (up to 0.9 cm3g-1). The pore size (between 3 and 7nm in diameter) and surface area of mesoporous silicon carbide were controlled by adjusting the infiltration conditions (time, atmosphere). The mesoporous silicon carbide prepared via this method showed high structural thermal stability at 1300 oC, exceeding that of the SBA-15 template. However, the ordering on the mesoscopic scale was low. Nevertheless, highly ordered mesoporous silicon carbide materials were obtained via polymer melt infiltration in SBA-15. The low molecular weight polycarbosilane used as a preceramic precursor was converted at 1300 oC to silicon carbide inside the SBA-15, and after subsequent silica removal by HF, a highly ordered mesoporous material was obtained. Ordered mesoporous silicon carbide prepared by the methods reported here, may be an interesting material as a support due to its high temperature stability, chemical inertness, high thermal conductivity and semiconductor properties. In contrast to the nanocasting approach, based on the complete pore filling, also a new in-situ procedure for the preparation of finely dispersed metal and metal oxide particles inside ordered mesoporous silica was developed. A swelling agent (toluene) was used to deliver a hydrophobic platinum precursor into the surfactant micelles before addition of silica source. Such an in-situ method resulted in very high platinum incorporation (80-100%), not achieved for any other in-situ preparation procedures. Additionally, the presence of platinum allowed to decrease the template removal temperatures. Moreover, the method was also extended to other metal or metal oxide/ordered mesoporous silica systems. This may be especially interesting for the preparation of ordered mesoporous materials with low melting points, where typically the structure collapses during the high temperature calcinations process. The in-situ synthesized V2O5/MCM-41 materials were used to prepare VN/MCM-41 composites via nitridation in ammonia at 800oC. This method allowed to prepare highly dispersed, X-ray amorphous vanadium nitride species, with high activity in the propane dehydrogenation. Compared to nitridation of supported vanadium oxide prepared via the ex-situ procedure, in-situ synthesized materials showed similar catalytic activity, in spite of having significantly lower vanadium loading. As an alternative for the preparation of supported nitride materials, a novel preparation procedure of bulk not supported nanocrystalline vanadium nitride with high surface area was presented. Instead of pure oxide powder (which was typically used in the preparation of high surface area vanadium nitride catalysts), a macroporous amine intercalated V2O5 was used as the starting material. The obtained nitride consisted of small crystallites and had a surface area up to 198 m2g-1. Moreover, this foam-derived VN showed significantly improved activity as a catalyst in propane dehydrogenation. This novel preparation method could also be extended to other systems such as ternary VMoxNy nitrides.

This article combines a systematic literature review on the fabrication of macroporous α-Al2O3 with increased specific surface area with recent results from our group. Publications claiming the fabrication of α-Al2O3 with high specific surface areas (HSSA) are comprehensively assessed and critically reviewed. An account of all major routes towards HSSA α-Al2O3 is given, including hydrothermal methods, pore protection approaches, dopants, anodically oxidized alumina membranes, and sol-gel syntheses. Furthermore, limitations of these routes are disclosed, as thermodynamic calculations suggest that γ-Al2O3 may be the more stable alumina modification for ABET > 175 m2/g. In fact, the highest specific surface area unobjectionably reported to date for α-Al2O3 amounts to 16–24 m2/g and was attained via a sol-gel process. In a second part, we report on some of our own results, including a novel sol-gel synthesis, designated as mutual cross-hydrolysis. Besides, the Mn-assisted α-transition appears to be a promising approach for some alumina materials, whereas pore protection by carbon filling kinetically inhibits the formation of α-Al2O3 seeds. These experimental results are substantiated by attempts to theoretically calculate and predict the specific surface areas of both porous materials and nanopowders.