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Most industrialised countries have witnessed a shift in the 'male breadwinner' model of family life as new generations of mothers have increasingly combined employment with parenting responsibilities. This has had implications for the role of fathers and their contributions to childcare and domestic work have increased as a result. However the change in fathers' contributions has not kept pace with the change in women's economic activity, suggesting there are social, political, economic and cultural barriers in place. Two sweeps of the Millennium Cohort Study (MCS) are used to explore some of the conditions under which fathers become more actively involved in childcare and housework when cohort children are aged nine months and three years old. This question is examined cross-sectionally and longitudinally within the context of a two parent, heterosexual household in Britain. Three data classification techniques are used to derive two latent measures that represent two dimensions of paternal involvement (engagement and responsibility). Multiple regression is used to model involvement at aged nine months; logistic regression is used to model what type of caregiver a father is when the child is aged three. The main findings are: · Patterns of maternal and paternal employment have the strongest association with paternal involvement at both time points. When children are aged nine months, the hours that a mother works appear to have a stronger association with paternal involvement than fathers' own work hours (although this is still important). The likelihood of a father being involved with his three year old also increases dramatically the longer the hours the mother spends in paid work. Fathers' own work hours have a slightly stronger association with whether they take on a primary caregiving role at age three. · There are considerable variations in involvement when the child is aged nine months by ethnicity as involvement is lower for fathers with an Indian, Pakistani or Bangladeshi background. Responsibility for housework, however, is slightly higher for black/black British fathers. · Various demographics also have a small association with involved fathering atage three. For example, fathers are more likely to be involved when their child is a boy, when there are no other children in the household and when they took leave following their child's birth. The thesis exposes some of the employment and demographic conditions associated with greater paternal involvement with young children. In doing so it also brings to light some of the barriers to greater gender equity in the division of domestic labour (childcare and housework). The findings emphasise the importance of employment hours with long work hours hindering involvement and mothers' participation in the labour market encouraging it. The thesis provides a foundation from which to develop further analyses so that a better understanding of the variations in paternal involvement can be achieved.

No / Progress towards gender equality within intimate relationships has been slow, evident in the persistent unequal division of household labour. Previous studies have primarily focused on non-disabled couples, but research into couples where women were physically disabled has similarly shown a lack of gender equity in housework. However, there was a gap in the evidence in relation to whether men do more housework when women develop dementia. This article presents findings from a qualitative study in England, which explored the everyday decisions made by married couples where one partner had dementia. The author examines the division of labour within the couples and identifies whether women exercised any control over who did the housework. As it was found that men were often reluctant to undertake housework when their wives developed dementia, the author concludes that gender inequality in domestic labour tends to persist, irrespective of cognitive disability.

In the 21st century, the division of housework remains gendered, with women on average still spending more time doing chores than their male partners. While research has studied why this phenomenon is so persistent, few studies have yet been able to assess the effect of gender ideology and socio-economic resources at the same time, usually due to data restrictions. We use data from the pairfam, a new and innovative German panel study, in order to test the effect of absolute and relative resources as well as his and her gender ideology on the division of housework. We employ a life course perspective and analyze trajectories of couples' housework division over time, using multi-level random effects growth curve models. We find that an egalitarian gender ideology of both him and her significantly predicts more egalitarian division-trajectories, while neither absolute nor relative resources appear to have an effect on the division of housework over time. Furthermore, our results expand the literature by investigating how these processes differ among childless couples and couples who experience the first birth.

Only when the servant or wife is abruptly removed from the household and the well-oiled wheels of domestic machinery grind to a halt does the superior realize just how important such services really are. This quote shows how important domestic services are, it also points out who executes it and that society and people, at least the superior, tend to take it for granted. The quote also gives a hint to the aim of this study which is to analyze the arguments behind the policy proposal presented in Promemorian Skattelättnader för hushållstjänster from 2006. The study focuses on the social problems behind the policy proposal and if there were problems left unproblematized. Another aim is to study if assumptions on gender and class can be seen in the policy proposal. Two methods have been used; primarily argumentation, but to some extent (theoretically) also Carol Lee Bacchi’s approach ”what’s the problem represented to be?”. Bacchi’s approach is useful because the presented solutions to a problem depend on the representation of problems and how they are formulated. The results show, among other things, that the interpretation of women’s role in household and society, which also contain a representation of problems, line up the solutions of the problems. They also show that gender equality, as well as gender and class, has been left unproblematized in the policy proposal.

In this essay, I bring together the Swedish debate concerning tax subsidized household services – the so called RUT-deduction – with feminist care ethics, here represented mainly by philosopher Virginia Held. The first and main question asked, is how a care ethical argument against increased trade in housework can be formulated. The idea of the relational character of care as well as care representing an irreplaceable value, leads to the following argument: An increased trade in housework leads to less care and weakened care relations and this implies a loss both to individuals and to society. The second question posed, concerns the reach of the argument above: both with respect to what kind of housework that can reasonably be seen as part of the practice of care as well as within what type of relationships the idea of care practice applies. In this part I conclude that there is no ground for drawing a sharp line between housework which is, and housework which is not, part of care practice. The arguments presented are relevant for the discussion about what kind of gender equal society we should strive for. If justice is seen as a value superior to care, full time paid work for women as well as for men can be seen as a reasonable route towards gender equality. If the value of care and of care relations is placed alongside justice, other solutions than commodification of housework may be seen as needed.

Esta dissertação é composta por dois ensaios, ambos se referem aos jovens brasileiros. O primeiro deles, busca identificar características ligadas à alocação do tempo entre trabalhar e estudar. Para tal duas definições de trabalho são utilizadas, a de ocupação remunerada, e outra que inclui também os trabalhos sem remuneração, entre estes à responsabilidade sobre os afazeres domésticos. Na primeira definição, destacaram-se o papel da educação dos pais e da renda do domicílio, reforçando a idéia de que existe uma transmissão intergeracional da educação e de oportunidades. Além disso, habitar o meio rural e o casamento foram identificados como maiores influências para que as jovens não estivessem mais estudando, principalmente na definição que inclui os afazeres domésticos. Ainda, no que se refere à probabilidade de ser NEET, isto é, jovem que não estuda e não trabalha, a comparação entre as duas definições mostrou que quando se consideram apenas o trabalho remunerado, as mulheres possuem elevadas chances de estarem nesta categoria e, inclusive, com menor tendência de queda nestes valores com a idade. Já o segundo ensaio objetiva identificar os determinantes dos salários dos jovens. Neste sentido, o nível educacional e o papel do mercado formal de trabalho foram destacados os principais promotores de melhores salários, beneficiando principalmente as mulheres. Assim, de forma geral, destacou-se a necessidade de buscar instrumentos que permitam uma maior conciliação entre os afazeres domésticos, o mercado de trabalho e os estudos. Além de ressaltar a necessidade de políticas que promovam a formalidade no mercado de trabalho e incentivem a escolaridade, dois aspectos cruciais para reduzir a desigualdade de gênero. / This dissertation consists of two essays, both refer to young people living in Brazil. The first essay seeks to identify characteristics related to the allocation of time between work and study. For that, two definitions of work are used, one considering only paid labor, and the other including unpaid labor, among these are the responsibility for housework. In the first definition, the role of parents’ education and household income are underlined, reinforcing the idea that there is an intergenerational transmission of education and opportunities. Furthermore, living in rural areas and marriage were identified as major influences for the youth being outside of school, especially in the definition that includes the housework. Besides that, with regard to the likelihood of being a NEET, the comparison between the two definitions showed that when only paid work was considered, women have higher chances of being in this category, and with a less downward trend in these probabilities with age. The second study aims to identify the determinants of wages of young people. In this sense, the educational level and the role of the formal labor market were highlighted as major promoter of better wages, benefiting mainly women. Thus, in general, the results of this dissertation emphasize the need for the adoption of tools so that women can be more able to combine housework, market work and study. In addition, it highlights the need for policies that promote labor market formality and encourage schooling, two crucial aspects to reduce gender inequality.

Esta dissertação é composta por dois ensaios, ambos se referem aos jovens brasileiros. O primeiro deles, busca identificar características ligadas à alocação do tempo entre trabalhar e estudar. Para tal duas definições de trabalho são utilizadas, a de ocupação remunerada, e outra que inclui também os trabalhos sem remuneração, entre estes à responsabilidade sobre os afazeres domésticos. Na primeira definição, destacaram-se o papel da educação dos pais e da renda do domicílio, reforçando a idéia de que existe uma transmissão intergeracional da educação e de oportunidades. Além disso, habitar o meio rural e o casamento foram identificados como maiores influências para que as jovens não estivessem mais estudando, principalmente na definição que inclui os afazeres domésticos. Ainda, no que se refere à probabilidade de ser NEET, isto é, jovem que não estuda e não trabalha, a comparação entre as duas definições mostrou que quando se consideram apenas o trabalho remunerado, as mulheres possuem elevadas chances de estarem nesta categoria e, inclusive, com menor tendência de queda nestes valores com a idade. Já o segundo ensaio objetiva identificar os determinantes dos salários dos jovens. Neste sentido, o nível educacional e o papel do mercado formal de trabalho foram destacados os principais promotores de melhores salários, beneficiando principalmente as mulheres. Assim, de forma geral, destacou-se a necessidade de buscar instrumentos que permitam uma maior conciliação entre os afazeres domésticos, o mercado de trabalho e os estudos. Além de ressaltar a necessidade de políticas que promovam a formalidade no mercado de trabalho e incentivem a escolaridade, dois aspectos cruciais para reduzir a desigualdade de gênero. / This dissertation consists of two essays, both refer to young people living in Brazil. The first essay seeks to identify characteristics related to the allocation of time between work and study. For that, two definitions of work are used, one considering only paid labor, and the other including unpaid labor, among these are the responsibility for housework. In the first definition, the role of parents’ education and household income are underlined, reinforcing the idea that there is an intergenerational transmission of education and opportunities. Furthermore, living in rural areas and marriage were identified as major influences for the youth being outside of school, especially in the definition that includes the housework. Besides that, with regard to the likelihood of being a NEET, the comparison between the two definitions showed that when only paid work was considered, women have higher chances of being in this category, and with a less downward trend in these probabilities with age. The second study aims to identify the determinants of wages of young people. In this sense, the educational level and the role of the formal labor market were highlighted as major promoter of better wages, benefiting mainly women. Thus, in general, the results of this dissertation emphasize the need for the adoption of tools so that women can be more able to combine housework, market work and study. In addition, it highlights the need for policies that promote labor market formality and encourage schooling, two crucial aspects to reduce gender inequality.