A major challenge in tire, as well as in road engineering, is to understand the intricate mechanisms of friction. Pavement texture is a feature of the road surface that determines most tire-road interactions, and can be grouped into two classes: macro-texture, resulting mainly in the hysteretic component of friction, and micro-texture, resulting in adhesion. If both textures are maintained at high levels, they can help provide sufficient resistance to skidding. The ultimate objective of this research is to develop a physics-based multiscale rubber-road friction model that can predict the effectiveness of the tire as it interacts with the vehicle and the pavement. The model is developed based on sound physics and contact mechanics theories and uses road profile measurements and data measured on various tire compounds. To be able to predict road surface characteristics, it is proven that road surfaces are of fractal nature on given ranges of scale. It is shown that while global fractal quantities fail to classify pavement profiles, a local fractal parameter and three other texture parameters can separate road profiles that have different friction characteristics. Through the implementation of various contact theories and by conducting simulation studies, a methodical understanding of contact mechanics and of the effect of the diverse factors that influence friction is attained. To predict the viscoelastic friction between any given tire tread compound and road, the Nanovea JR25 portable optical profilometer is used to measure the road profiles. To characterize the road profile, the one-dimensional pavement measurements are used to obtain the two-dimensional power spectrum, followed by testing and characterizing the tread compounds (this is being carried out by Bridgestone). This data is used to develop a comprehensive analytical methodology to predict friction. To validate this model, a Dynamic Friction Test apparatus is designed and built. The friction tester enables measurement of the friction between tread compound samples and arbitrary surfaces, at different slip ratios. The correlations between the simulations and both indoor and outdoor experimental results are investigated. / Ph. D.

A new experimental method was developed to measure the hysteresis loss during a fatigue test from the load and stroke signals of a standard servo-hydraulic materials testing system. The method was used to characterize changes in properties and performance induced by long-term cyclic loading. Advantages of the load-stroke hysteresis loop include: (1) the fact that contact with the specimen is not required, (2) the fatigue test is not interrupted for data collection, (3) the measured quantity (the hysteresis loop area) is directly related to the (damage) events that alter material properties and life, and (4) a quantitative measure of damage extent and development is obtained. / Master of Science

Ferroelectric materials show a spontaneous electrical polarization that can be reversed in sense by an applied external electric field. It should, therefore, be feasible to build a ferroelectric memory device that can store information in digital form. Ascertaining the suitability of a ferroelectric material for use in memory devices requires an understanding of electrical properties of the thin-film capacitor. There are a number of electrical characterization methods which can be used to investigate these electrical properties. The polarization mechanism can be studied by the most fundamental characterization technique for ferroelectrics, the hysteresis loop, which is derived by plotting polarization against applied field. Fatigue, retention and imprint, which are specific ferroelectric lifetime characterization methods, are employed to determine the rate of capacitor degradation as well as the mechanisms responsible for it. The DC conductivity characterization techniques, including leakage current, resistivity degradation and time dependent dielectric breakdown (TDDB) are used to study the electrical current properties and charge transport mechanism in memory applications. Finally, the AC conductivity (complex impedance) characterization method, introduced here for the first time for ferroelectric capacitors, permits further understanding of the charge transport mechanism of ferroelectric materials. However, this characterization method is not directly used to evaluate the application of ferroelectrics in memory devices, but it can provide a further physical understanding of ferroelectric capacitors, such as the understanding of fatigue. PbZr_xTi_1-xO₃ (PZT), a ferroelectric material with a pseudo-cubic perovskite-type structure, has been the material of choice in all major ferroelectric random access memory (FRAM) development programs to date. However, degradation problems such as fatigue and imprint that affect the lifetime of ferroelectric capacitors have moderated the progress of using PZT in commercial ferroelectric memories. Recently, SrBi₂Ta₂O₉ (SBT), a ferroelectric material that crystallizes in a layered structure, has been identified as a promising candidate for FRAM applications as a result of its fatigue-free behavior. In this research, the performance of PZT and SBT as ferroelectric memory materials is compared by using the aforementioned electrical characterization methods. / Master of Science

When a rope quickly transfers from a slack state to a taut state, a snapping action occurs and produces a large tensile force which is known as a snap load. Energy is dissipated during this snap load, and it is proposed to use synthetic fiber ropes as a type of passive earthquake damper in order to take advantage of this phenomenon. This thesis is the second phase of a multi-stage research project whose goal is to investigate and develop what will be known as Snapping-Cable Energy Dissipators (SCEDs). The experimental data that was collected in the Master'­s Thesis of Nicholas Pearson was organized and analyzed as a part of this research in order to evaluate the behavior of the ropes during the snapping action. Additional tests were also conducted for this project under more controlled conditions in order to better understand how the ropes change throughout a sequence of similar snap loadings and also to determine the amount of energy that is dissipated. The data from both projects was then used as input parameters for a mathematical model that was developed to characterize the behavior of the ropes during a snap load. This model will be utilized in subsequent research involving the finite element analysis of the seismic response of structural frames containing SCEDs. / Master of Science

This thesis presents a numerical study of the influence of varying story strength on the seismic performance of multi-story wood-frame shear wall buildings. In the prior FEMA P695 studies of these buildings, the non-simulated collapse limit-state was exceeded primarily in the first story. This observation raised interest in quantifying the influence of varying strength from story to story on seismic response. In this study, four distributions of strength are used as bounding cases. The Parabolic strength distribution (1) results from the ELF vertical force distribution method in ASCE 7 that assigns forces to each level based on weight and story height. The Triangular strength distribution (2) results from an assumed vertical force distribution that assigns lateral forces based on the seismic weight at each level. The Constant strength distribution (3) results from an assumed vertical force distribution that assigns a concentrated lateral force at the uppermost level based on the total seismic weight of all levels. The Baseline distribution (4) reflects a realistic vertical strength distribution resulting from the ELF vertical force distribution method. The FEMA P695 methodology, which quantifies seismic performance via adjusted collapse margin ratios, is employed in this study. The analytical models include P-Delta effects and utilize the 10-parameter hysteresis CASHEW model. It is observed that the Parabolic strength distribution allows for dissipation of energy over the height of the building, has less collapse risk than other strength distributions studied, and reduces occurrence of concentrated deformations in a single story from the onset of applied lateral force. / MS / Multi-story wood-frame buildings are becoming increasingly common, especially in areas like the western United States. Past earthquakes have shown that multi-story wood-frame buildings that have a soft and weak first story relative to upper stories are vulnerable to collapsing on the first story. This vulnerability has raised interest in understanding how the relative strength of each story of a wood building affects its performance in an earthquake. This thesis studies four strength distribution cases. The first three cases are called the Parabolic, Triangular and Constant strength distributions named after the shape of the building’s story to story strength profile. For example, the Triangular case has the least amount of strength on the top story, which increases linearly in the lower stories down to the first story, which has the greatest strength. The fourth case, called the Baseline case, is based on actual building designs. All four strength distribution cases have the same first story strength. Two evaluation methods are used to test the strength distribution cases. The first, known as a pushover analysis, applies lateral forces to the building until the roof reaches a specified displacement. The second, called an incremental dynamic analysis, subjects the building to increasingly intense earthquakes until a certain amount of displacement is reached in any story. The results of these analyses showed that the Parabolic strength distribution most effectively used the strength available in every story of the building to delay the onset of collapse and to distribute the location of the collapse story.

Apesar da recente queda no crescimento das exportações, a resposta das vendas externas à valorização cambial tem sido mais lenta do que previa a teoria econômica. Essas evidências sugerem a lentidão na correção dos desvios de uma relação de longo prazo entre o câmbio e as exportações, motivando a pesquisa sobre a presença de hysteresis no comércio brasileiro. O objetivo deste estudo é confirmar as predições da teoria de hysteresis em nível macroeconômico para as exportações manufaturadas brasileiras. Para isso, propõe-se um diferencial metodológico: a inclusão, nos modelos de oferta e demanda de exportações, de variável representativa de hysteresis, construída segundo o método de Piscitelli et al. (2000), testando sua significância nas equações. São utilizados modelos com dados em painel, metodologia que permite lidar com efeitos específicos aos setores industriais e realizar testes de hysteresis para o total das exportações manufaturadas a partir de informações desagregadas, proporcionado maior eficiência na estimação. Além disso, é investigada a estacionariedade das séries de dados, realizando testes para raiz unitária e cointegração em painel. Também são estimados os parâmetros das relações de longo prazo entre as variáveis. Os resultados confirmam a hipótese de uma relação de hysteresis, em especial, nas equações de demanda por exportações brasileiras. / In spite of the recent fall of the growth rate of Brazilian exports, the response of external sales to the appreciation of the exchange rate has been slower than what was predicted by economic theory. These evidences suggest that deviations from a long-run relationship between exchange rate and exports may take longer to be corrected, motivating the investigation of the presence of hysteresis in Brazilian international trade. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the applicability of the theory of macro-hysteresis to Brazilian manufactured exports. Thus, a distinct methodology is proposed: including a hysteretic variable in the equations of export supply and demand as an explanatory variable. This variable is constructed as the method developed by Piscitelli et al. (2000) and will be tested in order to assess its power in capturing the hysteretic effect. This study uses panel data which allow for heterogeneity among the industrial sectors and admits testing the hysteresis hypothesis in the aggregate exports through disaggregated information; hence, panel data will lead to more efficiency when estimating models. Furthermore, the stationarity of the data series is investigated through panel unit root and cointegration tests and the long run relationship parameters are estimated. Results confirm the hypothesis of the presence of a hysteretic relationship, especially in the demand equations.

Η υστέρηση είναι ένα μη γραμμικό φαινόμενο, το οποίο είναι πολύ κοινό σε διάφορους κλάδους της επιστήμης, συμπεριλαμβανομένων της φυσικής, της μηχανικής και της βιολογίας. Η μαθηματική θεμελίωση του φαινομένου της υστέρησης οφείλεται σε διάφορες εφαρμογές, οι οποίες αποτελούν και τα πρακτικά παραδείγματα, τα οποία την υποστηρίζουν. Για το λόγο αυτόν πλήθος μοντέλων, τα οποία πήραν την ονομασία τους από τους επιστήμονες που τα πρότειναν (π.χ Duhem, Weiss, Preisach κ.ο.κ), πρώτα χρησιμοποιήθηκαν για συγκεκριμένες εφαρμογές και μετά θεωρήθηκαν ως μοντέλα υστέρησης. Το φαινόμενο της υστέρησης, όπως και η μαθηματική του ανάλυση, έχει μελετηθεί διεξοδικά [1,2] και για το λόγο αυτό έχουν προταθεί αρκετά μαθηματικά εργαλεία. Εντούτοις, το πρόβλημα της αναγνώρισης (επίτευξη μαθηματικών μοντέλων επί τη βάση πειραματικών μετρήσεων) συστημάτων με υστέρηση δεν έχει λάβει τη δέουσα προσοχή ακόμα. Στις περισσότερες των περιπτώσεων, η αναγνώριση περιορίζεται σε πρακτικά ζητήματα (κυρίως για προσομοιώσεις συστημάτων με υστέρηση), κατά τα οποία επιλέγεται ένα συγκεκριμένο μοντέλο υστέρησης και χρησιμοποιείται μία μέθοδος εκτίμησης (π.χ μη-γραμμική βελτιστοποίηση), δίχως να δαπανάται επιπλέον προσπάθεια σε βαθύτερα θεωρητικά θέματα (π.χ κατά πόσο η εκτίμηση είναι η βέλτιστη ή αν είναι μοναδική κ.ο.κ). Αξίζει να σημειωθεί ότι το πρόβλημα της αναγνώρισης είναι βαθύτερο και χρήζει επιπλέον θεωρητικής ανάλυσης βάσει αρχών και εργαλείων από το γνωστικό αντικείμενο της “Θεωρίας Αναγνώρισης Συστημάτων”, έτσι ώστε να επιτυγχάνονται τα βέλτιστα αποτελέσματα. O πρώτος στόχος της παρούσα διατριβής είναι η ανάπτυξη μεθοδολογίας ανίχνευσης μη γραμμικής συμπεριφοράς (όπως για παράδειγμα η υστέρηση) αποκλειστικά επί τη βάση πειραματικών μετρήσεων. Η βασική ιδέα για την επίτευξη του σκοπού αυτού είναι η χρήση της Συνάρτησης Συνάφειας (Coherence Function), η οποία αναμένεται να μειωθεί με την ύπαρξη μη γραμμικοτήτων [3]. Μετά την ανίχνευση, ο στόχος είναι η ανάπτυξη ολοκληρωμένης μεθοδολογίας για την αναγνώριση φυσικών συστημάτων με υστέρηση, βάσει του μοντέλου ολίσθησης του Maxwell (Maxwell Slip model – [4]). Ο συγκεκριμένος στόχος αντιμετωπίζεται υπό το πρίσμα της θεωρίας αναγνώρισης συστημάτων (System Identification) και ως εκ τούτου τα βασικά θέματα θεωρητικής φύσεως τα οποία αντιμετωπίζονται είναι, τα ακόλουθα:  Η εκ των προτέρων αναγνωρισιμότητα (μοναδικότητα της παραμετροποίησης – uniqueness of representation) της δομής του μοντέλου ολίσθησης του Maxwell.  Η επίδραση των αρχικών καταστάσεων στην εκτίμηση του μοντέλου ολίσθησης του Maxwell.  Ο σχεδιασμός της διεγέρσεως έτσι ώστε τα διαθέσιμα δεδομένα να περιέχουν όλη τη δυνατή πληροφορία για την επιτυχή αναγνώριση του μοντέλου ολίσθησης του Maxwell.  H επιλογή και η αριθμητική εφαρμογή κατάλληλης εκτιμήτριας των παραμέτρων του μοντέλου ολίσθησης του Maxwell.  Η μελέτη της εκ των υστέρων αναγνωρισιμότητας (a posteriori identifiability) του Μοντέλου ολίσθησης του Maxwell.  Η μελέτη της ποιότητας της εκτίμησης του μοντέλου ολίσθησης του Maxwell, το οποίο συνεπάγεται την μελέτη της συνέπειας (consistency) και της ασυμπτωτικής κανονικότητας των εκτιμήσεων (asymptotic normality).  Η διαδικασία επιλογής της δομής (model structure selection) του μοντέλου ολίσθησης του Maxwell.  Ο έλεγχος εγκυρότητας (model validation) του εκτιμώμενου μοντέλου ολίσθησης του Maxwell. Επί τη βάση των παραπάνω βασικών θεμάτων, αναπτύσσονται κατάλληλα εργαλεία και λεπτομερείς διαδικασίες με σκοπό να δοθούν απαντήσεις. Προκειμένου να φανερωθεί η πρακτικότητα και εφαρμοσιμότητα των προαναφερθέντων θεωρητικών θεμάτων, είναι αναγκαία η εφαρμογή τους σε ένα πραγματικό σύστημα με υστέρηση. Από το πλήθος των διαθέσιμων συστημάτων αυτού του είδους, επιλέγεται ένα πραγματικό μηχανικό σύστημα με τριβή. Αξίζει να σημειωθεί ότι συστήματα αυτού του είδους όχι μόνο είναι πολύ κοινά σε μηχανολογικές εφαρμογές, άλλα η αναγνώριση τους αποτελεί πρόκληση, λόγω της πολύπλοκης φύσης της υστέρησης που παρουσιάζουν. Συγκεκριμένα τα εν λόγω συστήματα παρουσιάζουν διαφορετικό είδος υστέρησης ανάλογα με την περιοχή λειτουργίας τους. Έτσι, όταν λειτουργούν στην περιοχή προολίσθησης (δεν παρουσιάζεται μακροσκοπική κίνηση, η σχετική μετατόπισης μεταξύ των επιφανειών που έρχονται σε επαφή είναι της τάξεως των 2 - 5 μm (presliding regime [5]) εμφανίζεται υστέρηση (σχεδόν) ανεξάρτητη του ρυθμού, με χαρακτηριστικά μακράς μνήμης (hysteresis with nonlocal memory) μεταξύ της (μικρο)μετατόπισης και της δύναμης τριβής [6,7,8]. Όσο η σχετική μετατόπιση των επιφανειών που έρχονται σε επαφή αυξάνεται, τότε όλο και περισσότεροι δεσμοί (junctions) σπάνε και τελικά παρατηρείται μακροσκοπική μετατόπιση με αποτέλεσμα το σύστημα να εισέρχεται στην περιοχή ολίσθησης (sliding regime). Στην περιοχή αυτή, ο προηγούμενος τύπος της υστέρησης εξαφανίζεται και εμφανίζεται υστέρηση, μεταξύ της μετατόπισης και της δύναμης τριβής, ρυθμού εξαρτώμενης [8,9,4]. Αξίζει να σημειωθεί ότι ένα σύστημα με τριβή μεταβαίνει από την μια περιοχή λειτουργίας στην άλλη (π.χ κατά την αλλαγή στη φορά της κίνησης) αρκετές φορές ακόμα και κατά την τυπική του λειτουργία. Το γεγονός αυτό καταδεικνύει τη δυσκολία του προβλήματος. Προκειμένου να επιλυθεί το πρόβλημα της αναγνώρισης μηχανικών συστημάτων με τριβή, αρχικά μελετάται το σύστημα μόνο στην περιοχή προολίσθησης. Για το λόγο αυτό διεξάγονται κατάλληλα πειράματα στην περιοχή αυτή, μετρώνται τα σήματα της μετατόπισης και της τριβής προολίσθησης και εφαρμόζεται αναγνώριση του συστήματος επί τη βάση του Μοντέλου ολίσθησης του Maxwell. Η εφαρμογή της προτεινόμενης μεθοδολογίας οδηγεί σε σχεδόν άψογα αποτελέσματα, καταδεικνύοντας την ικανότητα του μοντέλου ολίσθησης του Maxwell να περιγράφει τη δυναμική του συστήματος στην περιοχή προολίσθησης. Αφού μελετήθηκε το σύστημα εντός της περιοχής προολίσθησης, το επόμενο βήμα περιλαμβάνει τη γενικότερη (και πιο πιθανή) περίπτωση, κατά την οποία το σύστημα λειτουργεί στη συνδυασμένη περιοχή προολίσθησης - ολίσθησης. Όπως και πριν, διεξάγονται πειράματα και μετρώνται τα σήματα μετατόπισης και τριβής. Αν και η αναγνώριση του συστήματος, μέσω του μοντέλου ολίσθησης του Maxwell στη συνδυασμένη περιοχή, δίνει χειρότερα συγκρινόμενα με τα προηγούμενα, αποτελέσματα, η χρήση του μοντέλου παρουσιάζεται αρκετά υποσχόμενη. Το γεγονός ότι η αναγνώριση, μέσω του μοντέλου ολίσθησης του Maxwell, στη συνδυασμένη περιοχή προολίσθησης - ολίσθησης οδηγεί σε χειρότερα αποτελέσματα οφείλεται στο ότι η εν λόγω δομή του μοντέλου δεν είναι σε θέση να ερμηνεύσει πλήρως την πολυπλοκότητα της υστέρησης που εμφανίζεται στην περίπτωση αυτή. Έτσι, κρίνεται απαραίτητη η κατάλληλη επέκταση της βασικής δομής. Για το λόγο αυτό προτείνεται κατάλληλη, επί τη βάση της βασική δομής, επέκταση. Η χρήση της νέας δομής του μοντέλου για την αναγνώριση του συστήματος στη συνδυασμένη περιοχή προολίσθησης - ολίσθησης οδηγεί σε εξαιρετική βελτίωση των αποτελεσμάτων, καταδεικνύοντας την καταλληλότητά της. Προκειμένου οι δυνατότητες της νέας δομής να παρουσιαστούν καλύτερα, αναπτύσσεται ένα απλό σύστημα ελέγχου πρόσω-αντιστάθμισης (feedforward), βασισμένο στην προτεινόμενη νέα δομή. Ο παραπάνω έλεγχος έχει ως αποτέλεσμα την επίτευξη εξαιρετικά χαμηλού σφάλματος εντοπισμού (tracking error), υποδεικνύοντας την εξαιρετική αντιστάθμιση της αναπτυσσόμενης τριβής και ως εκ τούτου την ικανότητα της προτεινόμενης δομής να ερμηνεύει τη δυναμική του συστήματος με τριβή, όταν αυτό δουλεύει στην συνδυασμένη περιοχή προολίσθησης - ολίσθησης. / Hysteresis is a nonlinear phenomenon which is common in various branches of science and technology, including physics, mechanics, biology, civil and mechanical engineering. It is well known that many applications stimulate and provide lively support to mathematical construction. For instance, several well - known models which named after the physicists and engineers who proposed them (Rayleigh, Duhem, Weiss, Prandtly, Preisach, Bouc and so on) was entangled with applications before being viewed as models of hysteresis. The study of hysteresis phenomena as well as their mathematical analysis have been systematically researched [1,2] and several mathematical modelling tools have been proposed. Nevertheless the problem of inverse modelling (that is identifying from available experimental data a model that provides the optimum representation of the system under study) of a system with hysteresis have not been investigated thoroughly. In the most of the cases the hysteresis identification is often limited to practical issues such that postulating a hysteresis model and applying an estimation technique (i.e. nonlinear optimization) for obtaining its parameters. However the problem is much deeper and a more theoretical analysis, employing principles and tools from the "System Identification Theory", should be applied in order the optimum results to be obtained. The dissertation aims at proposing a methodology for detecting nonlinearities (such as hysteresis) utilizing experimentally obtained excitation - response data only. The key feature for doing so is the Coherence Function, which is expected to be decreased with the appearance of nonlinear behavior [3]. Following this a complete methodology for identifying systems with hysteresis based upon the Maxwell Slip model [4] is established. This problem is addressed from the ``System Identification" point of view, and therefore the critical issues primarily addressed here are:  The a priori identifiability (or uniqueness of representation) of the Maxwell Slip model structure.  The excitation design for achieving ``rich" enough data for the Maxwell Slip model identification purpose.  The selection and numerical implementation of an estimator  The a posteriori identifiability (whether the model can be identified from a actual experiment under real conditions) of the Maxwell Slip model.  The estimator asymptotic statistical properties, such that consistency and asymptotic normality  The model structure selection  The model validation Based upon these questions, answers are provided and detailed guidelines are established. In order the established theoretical findings to be solidify and their practicality to be revealed, their application to an actual system with hysteresis is required. From the huge number of the available systems with hysteresis, a real (experimental) mechanical system with friction is selected. This kind of systems are not only quite common in mechanical engineering applications (friction perhaps is the most common source of nonlinearities in mechanical systems), but also extremely challenging due to its complicated hysteresis nature (different types of hysteresis appear according to the operational regime). In order the latter to be more clear consider that whenever a system with friction operates within presliding regime (no macroscopic movement between the two surface in contact - the relative displacement is approximately 2 – 5 μm for steel materials [5], then there is a (almost) rate-independent hysteresis with nonlocal memory between the displacement and friction force [6,7,4]. As the relative displacement increases then more and more junctions break and finally there is a macroscopic relative motion and therefore the sliding regime begins. In this case the previous type of hysteresis disappears, and a new rate-dependent hysteresis between the displacement and friction force appears [8,9,4]. However, the system transits from the one regime to the other, (i.e at velocity reversals) several time during its typical operation, thus the type of hysteresis appears depends on the operational regime and thus to the system motion. Unavoidably this makes the identification problem quite challenging. Firstly the system under study is considered within the presliding regime only. Experiments were carried out and actual presliding displacement - friction force signals were obtained. The application of the proposed methodology yields almost excellent results, indicating its ability of capturing the underlying presliding frictional dynamics. The obvious next step is to consider the most common case, which is operation within both presliding - sliding dynamics. Experiments were implemented and displacement - friction force signals were collected. In this case the identification results based upon the Maxwell Slip model, though not so good as before, appear to be very promising. For that reason a proper extension of the basic Maxwell Slip model structure is proposed and implemented. This modification yields to significant improvement, and excellent results are achieved. In order the potentiality of the proposed extended Maxwell Slip model to be demonstrated better, a simple feedforward friction compensation scheme, based upon the extended model, is implemented. The results demonstrate excellent friction compensation, yielding extremely low tracking error, not only in each operational regime but also during regime transitions.

Apesar da recente queda no crescimento das exportações, a resposta das vendas externas à valorização cambial tem sido mais lenta do que previa a teoria econômica. Essas evidências sugerem a lentidão na correção dos desvios de uma relação de longo prazo entre o câmbio e as exportações, motivando a pesquisa sobre a presença de hysteresis no comércio brasileiro. O objetivo deste estudo é confirmar as predições da teoria de hysteresis em nível macroeconômico para as exportações manufaturadas brasileiras. Para isso, propõe-se um diferencial metodológico: a inclusão, nos modelos de oferta e demanda de exportações, de variável representativa de hysteresis, construída segundo o método de Piscitelli et al. (2000), testando sua significância nas equações. São utilizados modelos com dados em painel, metodologia que permite lidar com efeitos específicos aos setores industriais e realizar testes de hysteresis para o total das exportações manufaturadas a partir de informações desagregadas, proporcionado maior eficiência na estimação. Além disso, é investigada a estacionariedade das séries de dados, realizando testes para raiz unitária e cointegração em painel. Também são estimados os parâmetros das relações de longo prazo entre as variáveis. Os resultados confirmam a hipótese de uma relação de hysteresis, em especial, nas equações de demanda por exportações brasileiras. / In spite of the recent fall of the growth rate of Brazilian exports, the response of external sales to the appreciation of the exchange rate has been slower than what was predicted by economic theory. These evidences suggest that deviations from a long-run relationship between exchange rate and exports may take longer to be corrected, motivating the investigation of the presence of hysteresis in Brazilian international trade. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the applicability of the theory of macro-hysteresis to Brazilian manufactured exports. Thus, a distinct methodology is proposed: including a hysteretic variable in the equations of export supply and demand as an explanatory variable. This variable is constructed as the method developed by Piscitelli et al. (2000) and will be tested in order to assess its power in capturing the hysteretic effect. This study uses panel data which allow for heterogeneity among the industrial sectors and admits testing the hysteresis hypothesis in the aggregate exports through disaggregated information; hence, panel data will lead to more efficiency when estimating models. Furthermore, the stationarity of the data series is investigated through panel unit root and cointegration tests and the long run relationship parameters are estimated. Results confirm the hypothesis of the presence of a hysteretic relationship, especially in the demand equations.

In DC to AC power conversion, voltage source inverters (VSI) based current controllers are usually preferred for today’s high performance AC drive which requires excellent dynamic and steady state performances at different transient and load conditions, with the additional advantages like inherent short circuit and over current protection. Out of different types of current controllers, hysteresis controllers are widely used due to their simplicity and ability to meet the requirements for a high performance AC drives. But the conventional hysteresis controllers suffers from wide variation of PWM switching frequency, overshoot in current errors, sub-harmonic components in the current waveform and non-optimum switching at different operating point of the drive system. To mitigate these problems, particularly to control the switching frequency variation, which is the root cause of all other problems, several methodologies like ramp comparison based controller, predictive current controller, etc. were proposed in the literature. But amplitude and phase offset error in the ramp comparison based controllers and complexities involved in the predictive controllers have limited the use of these controllers. Moreover, these type of controllers, which uses three separate and independently controlled tolerance band (sinusoidal type or adaptive) to control the 3-phase currents, shows limited dynamic responses and they are not simple to implement. To tackle the problem of controlling 3-phase currents simultaneously, space vector based hysteresis current controller is very effective as it combines the current errors of all the three phases as a single entity called current error space vector. It has a single controller’s logic with a hysteresis boundary for controlling this current error space vector. Several papers on space vector based hysteresis controllers for 2-level inverter with constant switching frequency have been published, but the application of the constant switching frequency based hysteresis current controllers for multi¬level inverter fed drive system, has not been addressed properly. Use of multi-level inverter in modern high performance drive for medium and high voltage levels is more prominent because of multi-level’s inherent advantages like good power quality, good electromagnetic compatibility (EMC), better DC link voltage utilization, reduced device voltage rating, so on. Even though some of the earlier works describe three-level space vector based hysteresis current controller techniques, they are specific to the particular level of inverters and does not demonstrate constant switching frequency of operation. This thesis proposes a novel approach where nearly constant switching frequency based hysteresis controller can be implemented for any general n-level inverter and it is also independent of inverter topology. In this work, varying parabolic boundary is used as the hysteresis current error boundary for controlling the current in a multi-level space vector structure. The computation of the parabolic boundary is accomplished offline and all the necessary boundary parameters at different operating points are stored in the look-up tables. The varying parabolic boundary for the multi-level space vector structure depends on the sampled reference phase voltage values which are estimated from stator current error information and then using the equivalent circuit model of induction motors. Here, a mapping technique is adopted to bring down all the three phase references to the inner- most carrier region, which results in mapping any outer triangular structure where tip of the voltage space vector is located, to one of the sectors of the inner most hexagon of the multi-level space vector structure. In this way, the required mapped sector information is easily found out to fix the correct orientation of the parabolic boundary in the space vector plane. This mapping technique simplifies the controller’s logic similar to that of a 2-level inverter. For online identification of the inverter switching voltage vectors constructing the present outer triangle of the multi-level space vector structure, the proposed controller utilizes the sampled phase voltage references. This identification technique is novel and also generic for any n-level inverter structure. This controller is having all the advantages of a space vector based hysteresis current controller and that of a multi-level inverter apart from having a nearly constant switching frequency spectrum similar to that of a voltage controlled space vector PWM (VC-SVPWM). Using the proposed controller, simulation study of a five-level inverter fed induction motor (IM) drive scheme, was carried out using Matlab-Simulink. Simulation study showed that the switching frequency variations in a fundamental cycle and over the entire speed range of the linear modulation region, is similar to that of a VC-SVPWM based multi-level VSI. The proposed hysteresis controller is experimentally verified on a 7.5 kW IM vector control drive fed with a five-level VSI. The proposed current error space vector based hysteresis controller providing nearly constant switching frequency is implemented on a TI TMS320LF2812 DSP and Xilinx XC3S200FT256 FPGA based platform. The three-phase reference currents are generated depending on the frequency command and the controller is tested with the drive for the entire operating speed range of the machine in forward and reverse directions. Steady state and quick transient results of the proposed drive are presented in this thesis. This thesis also proposes another type of hysteresis controller, firstly for 2-level inverter and then for general n-level multi-level inverter, which eliminates the parabolic boundary and replaces it with a boundary which is computed online and does not use any look up table for boundary selection. The current error boundary for the proposed hysteresis controller is computed online in a very simple way, using the information of estimated fundamental stator voltages along α and β axes of space vector plane. The method adopted for the proposed controller to compute the boundary does not involve any complicated computations and it selects the optimal vector for switching when current error space vector crosses the boundary. This way adjacent voltage vector switching similar to VC-SVPWM can be ensured. For 2-level inverter, it precisely determines the sector, in which reference voltage vector is present. In multi-level inverter, this controller also finds out the mapped sector information using the same mapping techniques as explained in the first part of this thesis. In both 2-level and multi-level inverter, the proposed controller does not use any look up table for finding individual voltage vector switching times from the estimated voltage references. These switching times are used for the computation of hysteresis boundary for individual vectors. Thus the hysteresis boundary for individual vectors is exactly calculated and the boundary is similar to that of VC-SVPWM scheme for the respective levels of inverter. In the present scheme, the phase voltage harmonic spectrum is very close to that of a constant switching frequency VC-SVPWM inverter. In this thesis, at first, the proposed on line boundary computation scheme is implemented for a 2-level inverter based controller for the initial study, so that it can be executed as fast as 10 µs in a DSP platform, which is required for accurate current control. Then the same algorithm of 2-level inverter is extended for multi-level inverter with the additional logic for online identification of nearest switching voltage vectors (also used in the parabolic boundary case) for the present sampling interval. Previously mentioned mapping technique for multi-level inverter, is also implemented here to bring down the phase voltage references to the inner-most carrier region to realize the multi-level current control strategy equivalent to that of a 2-level inverter PWM current control. Simulation study to verify the steady state as well as transient performance of the proposed controller for both 2-level as well as five-level VSI fed IM drive is carried out using Simulink tool box of MATLAB Simulation Software. The proposed hysteresis controllers are experimentally verified on a 7.5 kW IM vector control drive fed with a two-level VSI and five-level VSI separately. The proposed current error space vector based hysteresis controller providing nearly constant switching frequency profile for phase voltage is implemented on the TI TMS320LF2812 DSP and Xilinx XC3S200FT256 FPGA based platform. The three-phase reference currents are generated depending on the frequency command and the proposed hysteresis controllers are tested with drive for the entire operating speed range of the machine in forward and reverse directions. Steady state and transient results of the proposed drive are also presented for different operating conditions, through the simulation study followed by experimental verifications. Even though the simulation and experimental verifications are done on a 5-level inverter to explain the proposed hysteresis controller, it can be easily implemented for any general n-level inverter, as described in this thesis.

Helicopters suffer from severe vibration levels compared to fixed-wing aircraft. The main source of vibration in a helicopter is the main rotor which operates in a highly unsteady aerodynamic environment. Active vibration control methods are effective in helicopter vibration suppression since they can adapt to various flight conditions and often involve low weight penalty. One such method is the actively controlled flap (ACF) approach. In the ACF approach, a trailing-edge flap (TEF) located in each rotor blade is deflected at higher harmonics of rotor frequency to reduce vibratory loads at the rotor hub. The ACF approach is attractive because of its simplicity in practical implementation, low actuation power and enhanced airworthiness, since the flap control is independent of the primary control system. Multiple-flaps are better suited to modify the aerodynamic loading over the rotor blade and hence offer more flexibility compared to a single flap. They also provide the advantage of redundancy over single-flap configuration. However, issues like the number, location and size of these individual flaps need to be addressed based on logic and a suitable performance criteria. Preliminary studies on a 4-bladed hingeless rotor using simple aerodynamic and wake models predict that multiple-flaps are capable of 70-75 percent reduction in hub vibration levels. Numerical studies confirm that multiple-flaps require significantly less control effort as compared to single-flap configuration for obtaining similar reductions in hub vibration levels. Detailed studies include more accurate aerodynamic and wake models for the rotor with TEF’s. A simple and efficient flap control algorithm is chosen from literature and modified for use in multiple-flap configuration to actuate every flap near complete authority. The flap algorithm is computationally efficient and performs creditably at both high and low forward speeds. This algorithm works reasonably well in the presence of zero-mean Gaussian noise in hub load data. It is also fairly insensitive to small changes in plant parameters, such as, blade mass and stiffness properties. The optimal locations of multiple TEF’s for maximum reduction in hub vibration are determined using Response Surface methodology. Piezoelectric stack actuators are the most promising candidates for actuation of full-scale TEF’s on helicopter rotors. A major limitation of piezoelectric actuators is their lack of accuracy due to nonlinearity and hysteresis. The hysteresis in the actuators is modeled using the classical Preisach model (CPM). Experimental data from literature is used to estimate the Preisach distribution function. The hub vibration in this case is reduced by about 81-86 percent from baseline conditions. The performance of the ACF mechanism can be further improved by using an accurate hysteresis compensation scheme. However, using a linear model for the piezoelectric actuator or an inaccurate compensation scheme can lead to deterioration in ACF performance. Finally, bench-top experiments are conducted on a commercially available piezostack actuator (APA500L from CEDRAT Technologies) to study its dynamic hysteresis characteristics. A rate-dependent dynamic hysteresis model based on CPM is used to model the actuator. The unknown coefficients in the model are identified using experiments and validated. Numerical simulations show the importance of modeling actuator hysteresis in helicopter vibration control using TEF’s. A final configuration of multiple flaps is then proposed by including the effects of actuator hysteresis and using the response surface approach to determine the optimal flap locations. It is found that dynamic hysteresis not only affects the vibration reduction levels but also the optimal location of the TEF's.