The sea-surface microlayer (SML) is the boundary layer at the air-sea interface where many biogeochemical processes occur. Many organisms (e.g., bacteria) produce surface active agents (surfactants) for life processes, which accumulate in the SML and dampen short gravity-capillary waves, resulting in sea surface slicks. Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) is capable of remotely sensing these features on the sea surface by measuring reflected backscatter from the ocean surface in microwaves. This study coordinates SAR overpasses with in situ SML and subsurface (SSW) microbial sample collection to guide subsequent analysis after 16s rRNA sequencing on the Illumina MiSeq. In April 2017, 138 SML and SSW samples were collected near a targeted oil-seep where the Taylor Platform was knocked down in the Gulf of Mexico, both in and out of visually-observed oil slicks. In July and August 2018, 220 SML and SSW samples were collected near the Looe Key coral reef and a coastal seagrass area. Analysis of microbial abundance and diversity between the two experiments shows that within oil slicks, surfactant- and oil-associated bacteria prefer to reside within the SSW rather than in the SML. In natural slicks in the coastal seagrass area, these bacteria are more abundant in the SML. Outside of these slicks, surfactant-associated bacteria are more abundant within the SML than the SSW. This suggests that the presence of oil reduces the habitability of the SML, whereas natural slicks created by foam and other surfactants creates a more habitable environment in the SML. With lower wind speed, abundance of these bacteria are greater, as increased wind speed results in a harsher environment. The diurnal cycle had an effect on the relative abundance of surfactant-associated bacteria in the SML and SSW. Our results demonstrate the usefulness of synthetic aperture radar to remotely sense sea surface slicks in coordination with in situ surfactant-associated bacteria data collection of the sea surface slicks.

Soil microbial communities are affected extensively by addition of amendments to their environment. Of particular concern is the addition of poultry litter, which contains a substantial C, energy, and nutrient supply, but also antibiotic resistance genes (ARG), antimicrobials, and a multitude of microbial species. This project seeks to primarily assess if there is a change in bacterial community structure in response to poultry litter amendments to pasture land across geographically independent land across northern Georgia. It may be that changes in the relative abundance of bacterial communities also result in alteration in ARGs, and the community resistance to antibiotics (“resistome”) which in turn increases the potential threat of antibiotic resistance genes. While another part of this study will determine changes in integrons and specific ARGs, this project will focus on changes in bacterial communities and the potential functional changes in the community, which in turn have consequences for ARG levels and its horizontal transfer to various members of the soil community. Addition of waste from livestock is a historical method for increasing nutrients needed in the soil for the cultivation of crops, and in turn causes pronounced shifts in soil microbial communities due to the addition of large amounts of carbon, nutrients, foreign microbes, and other material. This study is unique because it utilizes a novel and relatively large landscape-scale to determine if there are discernable and repeatable patterns of bacterial community structure change in response to amendment regardless of exact soil type or source of chicken litter amendment. In the future, these data can also provide insight into the changes in the relative abundance antibiotic related genes associated with community change. / M.S. / Soil is complicated, both in terms of its physical makeup and the organisms that live inside of it. Predicting changes in soil based on the addition of foreign material such as chemicals or biological waste is not an easy process, and whether or not it is even possible to reliably predict those changes is a matter of some dispute. This study is designed to illustrate that such changes can in fact be reliably and consistently predicted even with regard to the addition of complicated materials to the soil. In this study, specifically, the material in question is chicken litter. A mix of the bedding and waste produced by chickens, litter is commonly handled by composting and is added to soil in farms as a fertilizer rich in organic matter. It is possible to point at specific elements of the soil such as the chemistry and bacteria and see how it is changed with the addition of chicken litter, which allows us to determine the nature and extent of the change that chicken litter has on soil. This study is conducted on a larger scale than similar experiments conducted in the past, making it apparent that these relationships exist on a repeated basis. It is the object of this study to pave the way and make it easier for scientists in the future to determine these relationships in other unique contexts.

Integrating crop and livestock is being considered to improve soil health by carbon sequestration. A two-year study (2019-2021) at CPBES in Newton, MS was aimed to evaluate soil microbial diversity in the warm, humid regions, specifically southeastern USA. Amplicons targeting bacterial 16S rRNA genes and fungal ITS2 regions were sequenced. Taxonomic assignment and microbial diversity characterization were performed using QIIME2®. Soil fungal diversity showed significant differences (alpha diversity, p = 0.031 in yr. 2020 and beta diversity, p = 0.037 in yr. 2021). Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) and Mantel test showed significant influence on fungal diversity due to carbon (rm = 0.2581, p = 0.022), nitrogen (rm = 0.2921, p = 0.0165) in yr. 2021, and on bacterial diversity due to EE-GRSP (rm = 0.22, p = 0.02) in yr. 2020. Long term study of ICLS can help us better understand the shift in microbiome to improve crop production sustainably.

Next generation sequencing is a modern method applied in plant virology for sensitive detection of previously characterized and novel pathogens without any preceding knowledge of them. In this study three novel and two already described viruses were detected by de novo assembly of Illumina single-end reads ( Hi-Seq 2500 system) from total poly(A) enriched RNA of diseased red clover (Trifolium pratense) and indicator plant (Nicotiana occidentalis 37B). The complete genomic sequence of novel Red clover carlavirus A (RCCA) was determined from Illumina reads, 5´, 3´ RACE, cloning, RT-PCR and Sanger sequencing. The presence of RCCV was also confirmed in mechanically inoculated tobacco plant.

Submitted in complete fulfillment for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Biotechnology), Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa, 2016. / Seasonal nitrification breakdown is a major problem in wastewater treatment plants which makes it difficult for the plant operators to meet discharge limits. The present study focused on understanding the seasonal impact of environmental and operational parameters on nitrifiers and nitrification, in a biological nutrient removal wastewater treatment works situated in the midlands of KwaZulu Natal. Composite sludge samples (from the aeration tank), influent and effluent water samples were collected twice a month for 237 days. A combination of fluorescent in-situ hybridization, polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-clone library, quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) were employed for characterizing and quantifying the dominant nitrifiers in the plant. In order to have more insight into the activated sludge community structure, pyrosequencing was used in profiling the amoA locus of ammonia oxidizing bacteria (AOB) community whilst Illumina sequencing was used in characterising the plant’s total bacterial community. The nonlinear effect of operating parameters and environmental conditions on nitrification was also investigated using an adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS), Pearson’s correlation coefficient and quadratic models. The plant operated with higher MLSS of 6157±783 mg/L during the first phase (winter) whilst it was 4728±1282 mg/L in summer. The temperature recorded in the aeration tanks ranged from 14.2oC to 25.1oC during the period. The average ammonia removal during winter was 60.0±18% whereas it was 83±13% during summer and this was found to correlate with temperature (r = 0.7671; P = 0.0008). A significant correlation was also found between the AOB (amoA gene) copy numbers and temperature in the reactors (α= 0.05; P=0.05), with the lowest AOB abundance recorded during winter. Sanger sequencing analysis indicated that the dominant nitrifiers were Nitrosomonas spp. Nitrobacter spp. and Nitrospira spp. Pyrosequencing revealed significant differences in the AOB population which was 6 times higher during summer compared to winter. The AOB sequences related to uncultured bacterium and uncultured AOB also showed an increase of 133% and 360% respectively when the season changed from winter to summer. This study suggests that vast population of novel, ecologically significant AOB species, which remain unexploited, still inhabit the complex activated sludge communities. Based on ANFIS model, AOB increased during summer season, when temperature was 1.4-fold higher than winter (r 0.517, p 0.048), and HRT decreased by 31% as a result of rainfall (r - 0.741, p 0.002). Food: microorganism ratio (F/M) and HRT formed the optimal combination of two inputs affecting the plant’s specific nitrification (qN), and their quadratic equation showed r2-value of 0.50. This study has significantly contributed towards understanding the complex relationship between the microbial population dynamics, wastewater composition and nitrification performance in a full-scale treatment plant situated in the subtropical region. This is the first study applying ANFIS technique to describe the nitrification performance at a full-scale WWTP, subjected to dynamic operational parameters. The study also demonstrated the successful application of ANFIS for determining and ranking the impact of various operating parameters on plant’s nitrification performance, which could not be achieved by the conventional spearman correlation due to the non-linearity of the interactions during wastewater treatment. Moreover, this study also represents the first-time amoA gene targeted pyrosequencing of AOB in a full-scale activated sludge is being done. / D

This thesis is a part of the project aimed at sequencing the genome and transcriptome of the bank vole (Clethrionomys glareolus). The role of natural selection in the evolution of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) has been subject to much discussion; while some studies did not provide evidence that selection affected the phylogeography of the studied species, other considered adaptive evolution important. The bank vole is the key model we use to study the adaptation to climate change. As with other species, the phylogeography of the bank vole has been based on the variation of a small part of mtDNA. The goal of the thesis was to sequence the entire mitochondrial genome for representatives of all main mtDNA lineages of the bank vole using the Sanger and Illumina technologies, and to assess the role of selection and adaptation in the evolution and phylogeography of this species. The adaptive evolution in mtDNA probably was not the main driving force during the postlacial colonization of Europe. However, signatures of adaptive evolution have been found - an amino acid change with possible functional consequences in one gene and an excess of radical changes in physical- chemical properties of amino acids in populations at the latitudinal (northern and southern) extremes of the bank vole distribution. Key...

Des études d'associations pangénomiques ont démontré une relation entre le taux plasmatique de la vitamine B12 et le polymorphisme du gène FUT2 (fucosyltransferase 2). Dans des modèles expérimentaux, le statut sécréteur pour FUT2 a été impliqué dans la susceptibilité à l'infection par Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori). Nous avons évalué l'influence du polymorphisme FUT2 461 G>A sur les marqueurs du métabolisme des monocarbones dans deux populations ambulatoires en Europe et en Afrique de l'Ouest ainsi que la possible association entre l'infection par H. pylori et le polymorphisme de FUT2. Nous avons mis en évidence une influence de FUT2 461 G>A sur le taux plasmatique de la vitamine B12 mais n'avons pas retrouvé d'influence du statut sérologique pour H. pylori sur cette association, du moins chez les sujets ambulatoires en Europe et en Afrique de l'Ouest. L'hyperhomocystéinémie est un marqueur de carence en donneurs de méthyle. Plusieurs travaux ont évalué le taux plasmatique de l'homocystéine au cours des maladies inflammatoires chroniques de l'intestin (MICI) et ont abouti à des résultats mitigés. Par ailleurs, l'ampleur de l'association entre le métabolisme de l'homocystéine et les MICI reste méconnue. Nous avons réalisé une méta-analyse afin : (i) d'évaluer l'association entre le métabolisme de l'homocystéine et les MICI et (ii) d'étudier le risque de thrombose lié à l'hyperhomocystéinémie au cours des MICI. Le risque d'hyperhomocystéinémie était significativement plus élevé chez les patients avec une MICI en comparaison aux sujets contrôles. L'évaluation du risque de thrombose associé à l'hyperhomocystéinémie au cours des MICI requiert des études complémentaires. Un statut carencé en folates était associé à un impact plus fort du polymorphisme MTHFR C677T sur le risque primaire de MICI. L'hyperhomocystéinémie et plusieurs polymorphismes sur les gènes du métabolisme des monocarbones sont associés au risque primaire et à la sévérité de la maladie de Crohn (MC). L'hyperhomocystéinémie augmente l'activité de la superoxyde dismutase (SOD), un marqueur fiable et validé du stress oxydatif. A l'aide d'un SNP array Illumina exhaustif du métabolisme des monocarbones, nous avons (i) étudié les déterminants génétiques (single nucleotide polymorphisms, SNPs) associés au taux plasmatique de l'homocystéine et de la SOD chez des patients suivis pour une MC et (ii) recherché les SNPs associés à l'âge du diagnostic de la MC. Deux SNPs étaient indépendamment associés au taux plasmatique de l'homocystéine (MTHFR, AHCY). Cinq SNPs étaient indépendamment associés au taux plasmatique de la SOD. Parmi ces cinq SNPs, trois sont liés à la vitamine B12 (FUT2, CUBN, et TCN2), un aux folates (GGH), et un dernier à la synthèse cellulaire de l'homocystéine (AHCY). Par ailleurs, nous avons mis en évidence deux SNPs associés à un âge précoce du diagnostic de la MC (CHDH, ABCB1). / Genome wide association studies demonstrated an association between plasma vitamin B12 and FUT2 (fucosyltransferase 2). It has been suggested that the association between FUT2 and low plasma vitamin B12 level may be the consequence of an increased susceptibility to Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection. We evaluated the association between FUT2 461G>A polymorphism and vitamin B12 and investigated whether the influence of FUT2 on H. pylori serology is part of the mechanisms that underlie this association, in two populations from Europe and West Africa. In this study we confirmed the influence of FUT2 461 G>A polymorphism on plasma vitamin B12 level and found no influence of H. pylori serological status on this association, at least in ambulatory subjects from Europe and West Africa. The magnitude of the association between homocysteine metabolism and inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) is unknown while the association between hyperhomocysteinemia and thrombosis remains controversial in IBD. We conducted a systematic review of the literature and performed a meta-analysis to examine these issues. The risk of hyperhomocysteinemia is significantly higher in IBD patients when compared to controls. The risk assessment of hyperhomocysteinemia-related thrombosis in IBD requires further investigation. Deficient folate status is associated with a higher impact of MTHFR C677T polymorphism on IBD risk. Hyperhomocysteinemia and several gene variants of one-carbon metabolism are associated with the occurrence and severity of Crohn's disease (CD). Hyperhomocysteinemia results in part from methyl donors deficiency - which is frequent in patients with CD - and increases the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD), a validated and reliable marker of oxidative stress. We designed a 384-plex GoldenGate oligo pool assay for the comprehensive one-carbon metabolism genotyping using Illumina platform. The aims of this study were (i) to assess genetic determinants of plasma homocysteine and superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels in patients with IBD and (ii) to look for single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with age at CD onset. Two SNPs were associated with plasma homocysteine level (MTHFR, AHCY). Five SNPs were independently associated with plasma SOD level. Of these five SNPs, three are related to vitamin B12 (FUT2, CUBN, and TCN2), one is related to folate (GGH), and the last one to homocysteine (AHCY). In addition, we identified two SNPs associated with early CD onset (CHDH, ABCB1)

The sequence of a polypeptide chain determines its structure which in turns determines its function. A protein is stabilized by multiple forces; hydrophobic interaction, electrostatic interactions and hydrogen bond formation between residues. While the above forces are non-covalent in nature the protein structure is also stabilized by disulfide bonds. Structural features such as naturally occurring cavities in proteins also affect its stability. Studying factors which affect a protein’s structural stability helps us understand complex sequence-structure-function relationships, the knowledge of which can be applied in areas such as protein engineering. The work presented in this thesis deals with various and diverse aspects of protein structure. Chapter 1 gives an overall introduction on the topics studied in this thesis. Chapter 2 focuses on a unique, non-regular, structural feature of proteins, viz. protein cavities. Cavities directly affect the packing density of the protein. It has been shown that large to small cavity creating mutations destabilize the protein with the extent of destabilization being proportional to the size of cavity created. On the other hand, small to large cavity filling mutations have been shown to increase protein stability. Tools which analyze protein cavities are thus important in studies pertaining to protein structure and stability. The chapter presents two methods which detect and calculate cavity volumes in proteins. The first method, DEPTH 2.0, focuses on accurate detection and volume calculation of cavities. The second method, ROBUSTCAVITIES, focuses on detection of biologically relevant cavities in proteins. We then study another aspect of protein structure – the disulfide bond. Disulfide bonds confer stability to the protein by decreasing the entropy of the unfolded state. Previous studies which attempted to engineer disulfides in proteins have shown mixed results. Previously, disulfide bonds in individual secondary structures were characterized. Analysis of disulfides in α-helices and antiparallel β-strands yielded important common features of such bonds. In Chapter 3 we present a review of these studies. We then use MODIP; a tool that identifies amino acid pairs which when mutated to cysteines will most likely form a disulfide bond, to analyze disulfide bonds in parallel β-strands. A direct way to analyze sequence-structure relationships is via mutating individual residues, evaluating the effect on stability and activity of the protein and inferring its effect on protein structure. Saturation mutagenesis libraries, where all possible mutations are made at every position in the protein contain a huge amount of information pertaining to the effect of mutations on structure. Making such libraries and screening them has been an extremely resource intensive process. We combine a fast inverse PCR based method to rapidly generate saturation mutagenesis libraries with the power of deep sequencing to derive phenotypes of individual mutants without any large scale screening. In Chapter 4 we present an Illumina data analysis pipeline which analyzes sequencing data from a saturation mutagenesis library, and derives individual mutant phenotypes with high confidence. In Chapter 5 we apply the insights derived from structure-function studies and apply it to the problem of protein engineering, specifically immunogen design. The Human Immunodeficiency Virus adopts various strategies to evade the host immune system. Being able to display the conserved epitopes which elicit a broadly neutralizing response is the first step towards an effective vaccine. Grafting such an epitope onto a foreign scaffold will mitigate some of the key HIV defenses. We develop a computational protocol which grafts the broadly neutralizing antibody b12 epitope on scaffolds selected from the PDB. This chapter also describes the only experimental work presented in this thesis viz. cloning, expressing and screening the epitope-scaffolds using Yeast Surface Display. Our epitope-scaffolds show modest but specific binding. In a bid to improve binding, we make random mutant libraries of the epitope-scaffolds and screen them for better binders using FACS. This work is on-going and we aim to purify our epitope-scaffolds, characterize them biophysically and eventually test their efficacy as immunogens.

Diverse and ecologically important microbial communities (microbiomes) are symbiotic within marine sponges. In this study, the microbiome of Amphimedon compressa from three sample locations (Broward and Dade Counties, Southeast Florida, USA and the Southern Caribbean, Bocas del Toro, Panama) is characterized using 16S rRNA Illumina sequencing. The predominant taxa are Proteobacteria and Cyanobacteria, as expected for Low Microbial Abundance sponges, accounting for over 53% of the total microbiome community. The numbers of Operational Taxonomic Units (OTUs) decrease from Broward County (2,900) to Dade County (2,300) and then Bocas del Toro (1,200). The correlates to a decreasing north-south gradient of sponge microbiome richness and diversity. Sponge microbiome richness and Alpha diversity are nearly identical from the two closest locations (37 km), both in Southeast Florida (Tukey HSD/ANOVA; p=0.999). However Panama sponge microbiome richness and Alpha diversity are distinctly lower, with the primary driver being distance, ~1,850 km from Southeast Florida. Abiotic factors driving this trend of decreased richness and diversity include increased temperature, and deceased salinity in relation to precipitation-based seasons. Sponge microbiome Beta diversity as determined by Bray-Curtis Dissimilarity and Non-Metric Multidimensional Scaling documents the clustering of Panama samples as distinct from the Broward and Dade County samples. In a seasonal comparison, Broward County sponge microbiome richness (p=0.026, r2=0.92) and Alpha diversity (p=0.007, r2=0.98) are significantly different, documenting robust effects of temperature. This comparison confirms lowest microbiome OTU diversity in the season with highest precipitation and highest temperatures of 29.8 °C. These results are consistent with prior studies that report decreasing microbiome OTU richness and diversity under conditions of environmental stress such as decreased salinity and increased temperatures.

Recently Whole Genome Sequencing (WGS) has become the new high-resolution tool used to trace the source of foodborne outbreaks. There are often only a few genetic differences that can distinguish closely related bacterial isolates, and variability in data quality between different laboratories may influence the results. In this project, a data set from ten laboratories where the same bacterial samples were sequenced using different library preparation kits and sequencing methods in an interlaboratory study, has been used. Factors that could be responsible for the different performance in terms of how well the raw WGS data from the different labs assembles were investigated. The raw data from the different labs assembled very differently. One lab showed adapter sequences in their reads and filtering them improved the assembly substantially. All labs utilizing the transposase-based library preparation kit Nextera, had base composition bias in the beginning of the reads. For many labs, as the coverage was increased, the number of contigs first increased and then decreased. This was due to low number of contaminating reads from other species. However, these contaminations were barely visible in the plots generated by Kraken/Krona. Filtering out contigs with very low coverage removed this problem. Two labs performed much worse than the others. Some of their reads showed quality drop towards the ends, whereas their data also had the longest read length. However, quality trimming the read ends did not improve the assembly. These two labs had higher GC content in their reads compared to the other labs, the reason for this needs further investigation.