As (almost) everyone in the Australian public relations industry knows, there are more women than men. On average, the numbers in Perth (and nationally) favour women by slightly more than three to one. However, the figures are alarmingly high, and, according to Australian Bureau of Statistics figures, make PR one of the most female-intensive industries in Australia. This growing imbalance may have long-term effects which have yet to be identified. This thesis, however, seeks to consider the reasons for this situation. The research aims to: 1. Examine the reasons for the growth in numbers of women and numerical decline of men within public relations in Perth, Western Australia, by considering the development of public relations and how it has impacted on the composition of the profession. 2. Examine future trends within the profession for both women and men and what an imbalance may mean. Patterns in the data clearly show that women outnumber men by almost 3:1, with statistics consistent across all groups surveyed. For example, in government PR practitioners are 71 per cent female, while in private practice (both nationally and in WA) it is 74 per cent. In WA charities the figure is 75 per cent. At the universities it varies between 72 and 87 per cent. This study examines the reason for the imbalance and whether an imbalance is good. Whether the industry (professional bodies, educators, students and practitioners) is concerned is up to it. This work provides the first study of the gender composition of the industry in Australia. As such, it should be a valuable tool in a number of areas. Like many initial studies, it raises just as many questions as answers, and it provides pathways for future study. It should lead to a wider examination of further issues. For example: does the predominance of women in PR in university courses cause concern among male students, perhaps leading them to question their continued participation? Do male students wonder whether the female dominance of PR courses will lessen their chances of employment. And what do practitioners think of an industry that is feminine?

<p>Fahlén, G. (2008). Aspects on the Effort-reward Imbalance model of psychosocial stress in the work environments. Sundsvall, Sweden: Mid Sweden University, Department of Health Sciences. ISBN 978-91-85317-94-3.</p><p>Since the late 1970s, work related stress has increasingly been recognized as an important determinant for ill-health and disease. One of the most influential stress models is the Effort-Reward Imbalance model (ERI), which stipulates that an imbalance between the perceived effort spent at work and rewards received results in noxious stress. Those with a coping behaviour called Work-related Overcommitment (WOC), including an inability to withdraw from work obligations are especially vulnerable. The model has shown strong explanatory value for a large numbers of harmful health outcomes.</p><p>The general aim of this thesis was to contribute to the development of the ERI model by exploring the properties of this model in relation to its theoretical assumptions, construct, and application and to improve the knowledge of validity of the ERI-model.</p><p>The study sample that was used in three papers emanated from the WOLF study (Work, Lipids and Fibrinogen). The analyses were confined to the subset of individuals who answered the ERI questions (n=1174) with complete answers. In one paper, data from the SKA study (Sick leave, Culture and Attitudes) were used and they comprised all employees at the Swedish Social Insurance Agency responsible for management and compensation of illness in the working population (n=5700). All data are based on questionnaires.</p><p>The results indicate that ERI and WOC are risk factors for sleep disturbances and fatigue. A palpable threshold effect was seen between quartile three and four. Since these symptoms are strongly stress related, our results support the utility of the ERI and WOC scales in assessing stress in working life.</p><p>Agreement between single questions in the original and an approximate instrument for measuring ERI were low, whereas the agreement between the two ERI scales was reasonable. When approximate instruments are used, questions and scales must be presented thoroughly to facilitate comparisons and the results should be interpreted with caution. Today there are no reasons to use such instruments in the ERI model.</p><p>One statement in the ERI model is that individuals with the coping behaviour characterised as WOC are particularly vulnerable to an imbalance between perceived effort and reward; i.e., that ERI and WOC interact. No such effect was shown in relation to disturbed sleep and fatigue. There is no convincing evidence that ERI and WOC interact in synergy. Analysis demonstrated that WOC was relatively stable in perceived unchanged conditions as measured by the original, more comprehensive instrument as well as by the present, shortened instrument. Positively or negatively perceived changes in ERI correspond to changes in WOC. This result suggests that WOC, at least in part, may act as not only a coping strategy but also as an outcome from ERI. Taken together, these results concerning WOC, suggest that studies to clarify the role of the WOC dimension are needed.</p><p>The ERI model states that, when individuals stay in unfavourable conditions characterised as ERI, because there are few alternatives on the labour market or when the individual is at risk of being laid off or of facing downward mobility, they are in a “locked in position” (LIP). A strong association between LIP and ERI was shown, supporting this statement.</p> / <p>Fahlén, G. (2008). Aspects on the Effort-reward Imbalance model of psychosocial stress in the work environments. Sundsvall, Sweden: Mid Sweden University, Department of Health Sciences. ISBN 978-91-85317-94-3.</p><p>Arbetsrelaterad stress har sedan slutat av sjuttiotalet alltmer blivit uppmärksammat som en viktig bestämningsfaktor för ohälsa. En av de mest inflytelserika stressmodellerna är Ansträngning-belönings modellen (Effort-reward imbalance, ERI) som stipulerar att en obalans mellan ansträngning och belöning i arbetet orsakar en skadlig stress och att de som har ett särskilt coping-beteende som kännetecknas bland annat av oförmåga att dra sig tillbaka från sitt arbete (Work related overcommitment WOC) är särskilt sårbara. Modellen har visat ett starkt förklaringsvärde för många negativa hälsoutfall.</p><p>Det övergripande syftet med avhandlingen var att bidra till utvecklingen av ERI-modellen genom att utforska modellens egenskaper i relation till de teoretiska antagandena, uppbyggnad och tillämpning samt att öka kunskapen om modellens validitet.</p><p>Den epidemiologiska studie som användes i tre artiklar var WOLF-studien (WOrk, Lipids and Fibrinogen) där analyserna genomfördes på den delmängd som hade svarat på ERI-frågorna (n=1174) och som hade kompletta svar. För en artikel användes material från SKA-studien (Sjukskrivning, Kultur och Attityder) och omfattade de som arbetade med ohälsoärenden vid Försäkringskassan (n=5700) i samtliga fall användes data från frågeformulär.</p><p>Resultaten visade att ERI och WOC utgör riskfaktorer för störd sömn och dagtrötthet. En tydlig tröskeleffekt kunde skönjas mellan tredje och fjärde kvartilen. Eftersom dessa symptom är starkt stressrelaterade, gav resultaten stöd för användbarheten av ERI och WOC instrumenten för att skatta stress i arbetslivet.</p><p>Överensstämmelsen mellan enskilda frågor i orginalinstrumentet för ERI och ett approximativt var låg, medan överensstämmelsen mellan de två ERI skalorna bedömdes som rimlig. När approximativa instrument används bör frågor och skalor presenteras utförligt för att jämförelser ska underlättas och resultaten bör tolkas med försiktighet.</p><p>En utgångspunkt i ERI-modellen är att individer som har ett coping-beteende som karakteriseras som WOC är särskilt sårbara för en obalans mellan ansträngning och belöning, d.v.s. att ERI och WOC interagerar i synergi. Ingen sådan effekt kunde styrkas i relation till störd sömn och dagtrötthet. Det saknas också övertygande bevis för att en sådan effekt finns. WOC-måttet är relativt stabilt i oförändrade arbetsförhållanden i såväl orginalinstrumentet som i det nuvarande förkortade. Upplevda positiva eller negativa förändringar i ERI påverkade WOC i samma riktning. Resultaten indikerade att WOC, åtminstone delvis kan utgöra ett utfall av ERI, inte endast en copingstrategi. Dessa resultat gör att studier för att tydliggöra WOC-dimensionens roll i ERI modellen är önskvärda.</p><p>En annan utgångspunkt i modellen är att en av de situationer man stannar i ogynnsamma arbetsförhållanden kännetecknade av ERI, är att man har små möjligheter att byta arbete beroende på att man har få möjligheter på arbetsmarknaden eller är utsatt för risk att bli uppsagd eller att få sämre arbete, man är ”inlåst”. Resultaten visade på en stark association mellan inlåsning och ERI och gav därmed stöd åt antagandet.</p>

Fahlén, G. (2008). Aspects on the Effort-reward Imbalance model of psychosocial stress in the work environments. Sundsvall, Sweden: Mid Sweden University, Department of Health Sciences. ISBN 978-91-85317-94-3. Since the late 1970s, work related stress has increasingly been recognized as an important determinant for ill-health and disease. One of the most influential stress models is the Effort-Reward Imbalance model (ERI), which stipulates that an imbalance between the perceived effort spent at work and rewards received results in noxious stress. Those with a coping behaviour called Work-related Overcommitment (WOC), including an inability to withdraw from work obligations are especially vulnerable. The model has shown strong explanatory value for a large numbers of harmful health outcomes. The general aim of this thesis was to contribute to the development of the ERI model by exploring the properties of this model in relation to its theoretical assumptions, construct, and application and to improve the knowledge of validity of the ERI-model. The study sample that was used in three papers emanated from the WOLF study (Work, Lipids and Fibrinogen). The analyses were confined to the subset of individuals who answered the ERI questions (n=1174) with complete answers. In one paper, data from the SKA study (Sick leave, Culture and Attitudes) were used and they comprised all employees at the Swedish Social Insurance Agency responsible for management and compensation of illness in the working population (n=5700). All data are based on questionnaires. The results indicate that ERI and WOC are risk factors for sleep disturbances and fatigue. A palpable threshold effect was seen between quartile three and four. Since these symptoms are strongly stress related, our results support the utility of the ERI and WOC scales in assessing stress in working life. Agreement between single questions in the original and an approximate instrument for measuring ERI were low, whereas the agreement between the two ERI scales was reasonable. When approximate instruments are used, questions and scales must be presented thoroughly to facilitate comparisons and the results should be interpreted with caution. Today there are no reasons to use such instruments in the ERI model. One statement in the ERI model is that individuals with the coping behaviour characterised as WOC are particularly vulnerable to an imbalance between perceived effort and reward; i.e., that ERI and WOC interact. No such effect was shown in relation to disturbed sleep and fatigue. There is no convincing evidence that ERI and WOC interact in synergy. Analysis demonstrated that WOC was relatively stable in perceived unchanged conditions as measured by the original, more comprehensive instrument as well as by the present, shortened instrument. Positively or negatively perceived changes in ERI correspond to changes in WOC. This result suggests that WOC, at least in part, may act as not only a coping strategy but also as an outcome from ERI. Taken together, these results concerning WOC, suggest that studies to clarify the role of the WOC dimension are needed. The ERI model states that, when individuals stay in unfavourable conditions characterised as ERI, because there are few alternatives on the labour market or when the individual is at risk of being laid off or of facing downward mobility, they are in a “locked in position” (LIP). A strong association between LIP and ERI was shown, supporting this statement. / Fahlén, G. (2008). Aspects on the Effort-reward Imbalance model of psychosocial stress in the work environments. Sundsvall, Sweden: Mid Sweden University, Department of Health Sciences. ISBN 978-91-85317-94-3. Arbetsrelaterad stress har sedan slutat av sjuttiotalet alltmer blivit uppmärksammat som en viktig bestämningsfaktor för ohälsa. En av de mest inflytelserika stressmodellerna är Ansträngning-belönings modellen (Effort-reward imbalance, ERI) som stipulerar att en obalans mellan ansträngning och belöning i arbetet orsakar en skadlig stress och att de som har ett särskilt coping-beteende som kännetecknas bland annat av oförmåga att dra sig tillbaka från sitt arbete (Work related overcommitment WOC) är särskilt sårbara. Modellen har visat ett starkt förklaringsvärde för många negativa hälsoutfall. Det övergripande syftet med avhandlingen var att bidra till utvecklingen av ERI-modellen genom att utforska modellens egenskaper i relation till de teoretiska antagandena, uppbyggnad och tillämpning samt att öka kunskapen om modellens validitet. Den epidemiologiska studie som användes i tre artiklar var WOLF-studien (WOrk, Lipids and Fibrinogen) där analyserna genomfördes på den delmängd som hade svarat på ERI-frågorna (n=1174) och som hade kompletta svar. För en artikel användes material från SKA-studien (Sjukskrivning, Kultur och Attityder) och omfattade de som arbetade med ohälsoärenden vid Försäkringskassan (n=5700) i samtliga fall användes data från frågeformulär. Resultaten visade att ERI och WOC utgör riskfaktorer för störd sömn och dagtrötthet. En tydlig tröskeleffekt kunde skönjas mellan tredje och fjärde kvartilen. Eftersom dessa symptom är starkt stressrelaterade, gav resultaten stöd för användbarheten av ERI och WOC instrumenten för att skatta stress i arbetslivet. Överensstämmelsen mellan enskilda frågor i orginalinstrumentet för ERI och ett approximativt var låg, medan överensstämmelsen mellan de två ERI skalorna bedömdes som rimlig. När approximativa instrument används bör frågor och skalor presenteras utförligt för att jämförelser ska underlättas och resultaten bör tolkas med försiktighet. En utgångspunkt i ERI-modellen är att individer som har ett coping-beteende som karakteriseras som WOC är särskilt sårbara för en obalans mellan ansträngning och belöning, d.v.s. att ERI och WOC interagerar i synergi. Ingen sådan effekt kunde styrkas i relation till störd sömn och dagtrötthet. Det saknas också övertygande bevis för att en sådan effekt finns. WOC-måttet är relativt stabilt i oförändrade arbetsförhållanden i såväl orginalinstrumentet som i det nuvarande förkortade. Upplevda positiva eller negativa förändringar i ERI påverkade WOC i samma riktning. Resultaten indikerade att WOC, åtminstone delvis kan utgöra ett utfall av ERI, inte endast en copingstrategi. Dessa resultat gör att studier för att tydliggöra WOC-dimensionens roll i ERI modellen är önskvärda. En annan utgångspunkt i modellen är att en av de situationer man stannar i ogynnsamma arbetsförhållanden kännetecknade av ERI, är att man har små möjligheter att byta arbete beroende på att man har få möjligheter på arbetsmarknaden eller är utsatt för risk att bli uppsagd eller att få sämre arbete, man är ”inlåst”. Resultaten visade på en stark association mellan inlåsning och ERI och gav därmed stöd åt antagandet.

Neck-shoulder pain (NSP) is a highly prevalent musculoskeletal disorder with unclear causes, and effective prevention and treatment require a further understanding of the underlying mechanisms. Aberrant autonomic nervous system (ANS) regulation is a hypothesized causal element in the development and maintenance of chronic muscle pain. The overall aim of this thesis was to investigate possible differences in ANS regulation between chronic NSP and healthy control (CON) groups using both laboratory assessment and ambulatory monitoring in daily life. Four papers are included in this thesis, based on data from three groups with chronic NSP. Autonomic responses to laboratory stressors were assessed using heart rate variability (HRV), blood pressure, trapezius muscle activity and blood flow measurements (Study І) in NSP and CON. Long-term ambulatory monitoring of HRV, physical activity and perceived symptoms were assessed in Studies ІІ and IV to investigate group differences in real-life conditions. Finally, the effects of a ten-week intervention (using individually adjusted HRV biofeedback) to reinstating ANS balance in subjects with chronic NSP were evaluated using self-reported symptoms and health ratings, as well as autonomic regulation testing (i.e., evaluating HRV at rest and in response to stress) (Study ІІІ). The main findings from the four studies demonstrated aberrant ANS regulation in the NSP group compared to CON, which was predominantly characterized by diminished parasympathetic cardiac activity during rest and sleep, and altered sympathetic reactivity to laboratory stressors (Studies І, ІІ and IV). Different patterns in physical activity were observed between the NSP and CON groups, with reduced physical activity during leisure time in the NSP group (Studies ІІ and IV). Physical activity was found to be positively associated with HRV. Positive effects of HRV-biofeedback were found on perceived health, including social function, vitality and bodily pain, and improved HRV (Study ІІІ). In conclusion, imbalanced ANS regulation was demonstrated among persons with chronic NSP at both the systemic and local levels. Diminished parasympathetic activity in NSP was modulated by lower levels of physical activity in leisure time. Interventions targeting ANS functions might benefit persons with chronic NSP.

Skillnaden i muskelstyrka mellan dominant och ickedominant ben hos fotbollspelare hartidigare studerats. Det finns inget enhälligt resultat om vilket ben som är starkast eller om detalls föreligger någon skillnad. Tidigare forskning har utfört mätningarna i sittandeutgångsposition vilket inte stämmer överens med fotbollspelares huvudsakliga aktivitet. Syftetmed uppsatsen var att, hos en grupp fotbollspelare i division ett och två, beskriva och jämföraden maximala muskelstyrkan mellan dominant och ickedominant ben. Datainsamlingenutfördes i en liggande utgångsposition då detta ger liknande muskellängdsförhållandet somvid stående. Mätinstrumentet var dragapparaten Genesis Single från Inmotion Intelligence.Studien är en beskrivande, jämförande tvärsnittsstudie. Urvalet bestod av en grupp manligafotbollspelare i svenska division ett och två.Resultatet i studien visade ingen signifikant skillnad i maximal muskelstyrka mellan dominantoch ickedominant ben. Vinkeln av knäflexion vid vilken knäflexorer respektive knäextensorerutvecklar maximal muskelstyrka, skiljer sig inte mellan dominant och ickedominant ben. Vadgäller den, ur maximal muskelstyrkesperspektiv, optimala vinkeln visar resultatet attknäflexorer inte utvecklar maximal styrka vid samma grad av flexion som knäextensorerna.Detta gäller både dominant och ickedominant ben. Fotboll är en sidodominant idrott menstudiens resultat tyder på att fotbollsutövande inte leder till muskulär obalans mellandominant och icke dominant ben. / The difference in muscle power between dominant and non-dominant leg in soccer has beenpreviously studied. There is no consensus on which leg is stronger or whether a differenceexists or not. Previous research conducted measurements in a seated starting position whichdoes not conform to the soccer player's main activity.The purpose of this study was, in a group of soccer players in Swedish first and seconddivision, to describe and compare the maximum muscle power between dominant and nondominantleg. Measurements were performed in a horizontal starting position as this givessimilar muscle length ratio as when standing. The machine used during the measurements wasGenesis Single from Inmotion Intelligence. The study was conducted with a descriptive andcomparative cross-sectional design. The sample consisted of a group of male soccer players inthe Swedish first and second division.The results of the study showed no significant difference in peak muscle power betweendominant and non-dominant leg. The angle of knee flexion in which knee flexors and kneeextensors develop maximum muscle power, did not differ between dominant and nondominantleg. The results showed that knee extensors did not produce maximum musclepower at the same degree of knee flexion as the knee flexors did. This applied to bothdominant and non-dominant leg. Football is a side dominant sport, but the study's resultssuggest that football practice will not lead to muscular imbalance between dominant and nondominantleg.

<p>Allelic imbalance, in which two alleles at a given locus exhibit differences in gene expression, chromatin composition and/or protein binding, is a widespread phenomenon in the human and other complex genomes. Most examples concern individual loci located more or less randomly around the genome and thus imply local and gene-specific mechanisms. However, genomic or chromosomal basis for allelic imbalance is supported by multi-locus examples such as those exemplified by domains of imprinted genes, spanning ~1-2 Mb, or by X chromosome inactivation, involving much of an entire chromosome. Recent studies have shown that genes on the two female X chromosomes exhibit a breadth of expression patterns ranging from complete silencing of one allele to fully balanced biallelic expression. Although evidence for heritability of allele-specific chromatin and expression patterns exists at individual loci, it is unknown whether heritability is also reflected in the chromosome-wide patterns of X inactivation.</p><p>The aim of this thesis is to elucidate the extent to which the widespread variable patterns of allelic imbalance on the human X chromosome in females are under genetic control and how access of the transcription machinery to the human inactive X chromosome in females is determined at a genomic level. For the set of variable genes examined in this study, the absence or presence of expression appears to be stochastic with respect to the population rather than abiding by strict genetic rules. Furthermore, variable gene expression that I have detected even among multiple clonal cell lines derived from a single individual suggests fluctuation in transcriptional machinery engagement. I find that, although expression at most genes on the human inactive X chromosome is repressed as a result of X inactivation, a number of loci are accessible to the transcriptional machinery. It appears that RNA Polymerase II is present at alleles on the inactive X even at the promoters of several silenced genes, indicating a potential for expression. </p><p>This thesis embodies a transition in the field of human X chromosome inactivation from gene by gene approaches used in the past to utilizing high-throughput technologies and applying follow-up analytic techniques to draw upon the vast data publicly available from large consortia projects.</p> / Dissertation

The reflection wavelength of Fiber Bragg Grating is sensitive to the strain and the temperature¡¦s variation. We use Fiber Bragg Grating to be the sensor head and measure the vibration frequency in constant temperature environment. The vibration of object can make the sinusoidal strain to Fiber Bragg Grating, and it will make a little phase difference to the light of the fiber. Using the interferometer and demodulation system, we can measure the phase difference and vibration frequency. Our sensor configuration is made up of imbalance Mach-Zehnder interferometer and Fiber Bragg Grating. The two light of different path need different time to pass through the vibration source, so they make phase difference. We use the demodulation circuit to measure the phase difference causing by vibration and get the vibration frequency. Our experiment structure is a novel configuration of Fiber Bragg Grating vibration sensor. Its intensity of signal is larger than the intensity of original sensor configuration, about 4dB.The novel sensor configuration is easier spread than traditional accelerometer and it is designed of all fiber. The accuracy for measuring low frequency vibration is 99.971%. The Dynamic range of the system is more than 45dB. It is larger than the dynamic range of original sensor configuration, about 9dB. The smallest signal that can be measured is about 0.0075rad.

In this study, a month-long simulation of gravity waves over North America and North Atlantic Ocean is performed using the mesoscale model MM5 for January 2003, verified with Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit-A (AMSU-A) radiance observations in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere. According to the monthly mean statistics, four regions of strong gravity wave activities are found both in the simulation and the AMSU-A observations: northwestern Atlantic, Appalachian Mountains, Rocky Mountains and Greenland, respectively. Those over the northwestern Atlantic Ocean are strongly associated with the midlatitude baroclinic jet-front systems, while the other three regions are apparently collocated with high topography. Imbalance diagnosis and numerical sensitivity experiments of a strong gravity wave event during January 18-22 show that the gravity waves are strongly linked to the unbalanced flow in the baroclinic jet-front system. The gravity waves are usually radiated from the upper tropospheric jet exit region with maximum nonlinear balance equation residual ( Δ NBE; key indicator of flow imbalance), distinctly different from other surface sources. Flow imbalance related strongly to tropopause folding and frontogenesis of the large-scale background flow. Similar wave characteristics are simulated in experiments with different microphysics and grid resolutions. The Δ NBE is again shown to be a good predictor for jet-front related gravity waves, suggesting its potential application to gravity wave parameterizations for global and climate models.

No description available.

Syftet med studien var att undersöka vilka stressreducerade ledarskapsbeteenden som chefer använder sig av gentemot sina medarbetare. Studien har en deduktiv ansats där två etablerade balansteorier; Karasek och Theorells (1990) krav och kontrollmodell samt Siegrits (1996) ansträngning och belöningsmodell, användes för att studera empirin. Ett målinriktat urval gjordes (n = 10) och av dessa var fem stycken kvinnor och fem stycken män. Semi-strukturerade intervjuer genomfördes med chefer på samma eller liknande position i en organisation. Det empiriska materialet analyserades genom en tematisk modell. Resultatet visade att cheferna använder sig av olika dimensioner av balansteorierna. Samtliga chefer använde sig av socialt stöd i olika former och majoriteten av cheferna gav medarbetarna kontroll över sin arbetssituation för att reducera stress. Ett fåtal av cheferna försökte få medarbetarna att uppleva yrkesstatus som belöning och slutligen lyfte cheferna fram vikten av att skapa en balans mellan arbetslivet och privatlivet för att främja medarbetarnas hälsa.