Thesis advisor: George M. Barnett / There is currently a shortage of students graduating with STEM (science, technology, engineering, or mathematics) degrees, particularly women and students of color. Approximately half of students who begin a STEM major eventually switch out. Many switchers cite the competitiveness, grading curves, and weed-out culture of introductory STEM classes as reasons for the switch. Variables known to influence resilience include a student's implicit theory of intelligence and achievement goal orientation. Incremental theory (belief that intelligence is malleable) and mastery goals (pursuit of increased competence) are more adaptive in challenging classroom contexts. This dissertation investigates the role that college science grading policies and messages about the importance of effort play in shaping both implicit theories and achievement goal orientation. College students (N = 425) were randomly assigned to read one of three grading scenarios: (1) a "mastery" scenario, which used criterion-referenced grading, permitted tests to be retaken, and included a strong effort message; (2) a "norm" scenario, which used norm-referenced grading (grading on the curve); or (3) an "effort" scenario, which combined a strong effort message with the norm-referenced policies. The dependent variables included implicit theories of intelligence, perceived classroom goal structure, and self-efficacy. A different sample of students (N = 15) were randomly assigned a scenario to read, asked to verbalize their thoughts, and responded to questions in a semi-structured interview. Results showed that students reading the mastery scenario were more likely to endorse an incremental theory of intelligence, perceived greater mastery goal structure, and had higher self-efficacy. The effort message had no effect on self-efficacy, implicit theory, and most of the goal structure measures. The interviews revealed that it was the retake policy in the mastery scenario and the competitive atmosphere in the norm-referenced scenarios that were likely driving the results. Competitive grading policies appear to be incompatible with mastery goals, cooperative learning, and a belief in the efficacy of effort. Implications for college STEM instruction are discussed. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2015. / Submitted to: Boston College. Lynch School of Education. / Discipline: Teacher Education, Special Education, Curriculum and Instruction.

Institutions of higher education continue to try and find new ways to help students persist in college (Kinzie & Kuh, 2017). One compelling tool to help students succeed comes from Dweck’s (1999) Mindset model. The model depicts intelligence as either fixed or growth; meaning intelligence can be viewed as unchangeable or malleable. Students with a growth mindset recover from failure quicker, overcome challenges faster, and see difficulty as a positive challenge instead of questioning their intelligence. With the many challenges domestic students face persisting in college, international students studying abroad face additional factors inhibiting their motivation and ability to succeed. The primary purpose of this study was to determine whether Dweck’s (1999) 8-item Mindset sub-scale could be valid with international students studying within the United States. A multiple-sample confirmatory factor analysis using maximum likelihood estimation was used to assess measurement invariance with domestic (n = 1809) and international (n = 275) students at a large-midwestern university. The secondary purpose was to determine whether GPA, gender, year-in-school, English language proficiency, and first-generation status impacted international student mindset scores. A seemingly unrelated regression was used to determine if there were any differences in the sub-group population of international students (n = 268). Results indicated Dweck’s (1999) Mindset Scale is valid for use with international students studying within the U.S. and significant differences were found in the mindset scores within gender, academic rank, age, and first-generation status. The results of this study inform the literature and institutions of higher education on how Dweck’s (1999) mindset model can be used as another tool to help international students succeed in college. Future research implications were shared and discussed.

Denna studie har två övergripande syften. Det första är att undersöka om gymnasieelever tror att de kan påverka sin matematiska intelligens eller inte. Det andra syftet är att undersöka hur gymnasieelevers hjälpsökande beteende ser ut och vilka faktorer som påverkar dessa beteenden. Data samlades in via enkäter på i en skola i Norrbotten, totalt besvarade 250 gymnasieelever enkäten. Resultatet från undersökningen visade att gymnasieeleverna generellt hade en mer dynamisk än statisk syn på sin egen matematiska intelligens. Resultatet visade även att andelen gymnasieelever som hade ett undvikande hjälpsökande beteende var 21.6 % samt att få gymnasieelever sökte hjälp publikt medan merparten av gymnasieeleverna sökte hjälp privat, dock i olika hög grad. Slutligen visade resultatet att gymnasieelevernas undvikande hjälpsökande beteende påverkades av deras rädsla att uppfattas som dum av klasskamrater och utav deras syn på sin egen matematiska intelligens. Resultatet visade även att gymnasieelevernas publika hjälpsökande beteende korrelerade med deras rädsla att uppfattas som dum utav klasskamrater. / This study has two overall aims. The first is to investigate whether high school students believe that they can influence their mathematical intelligence or not. The second aim is to investigate high school students' help-seeking behaviour and which factors influence these behaviours. Data was collected via questionnaires at a school in Norrbotten, a total of 250 high school students answered the questionnaire. The results of the survey showed that the high school students generally had a more dynamic than static view of their own mathematical intelligence. The results also showed that the percentage of high school students who had an avoidant helpseeking behaviour was 21.6% and that few high school students sought help publicly, while most high school students sought help privately, although to varying degrees. Finally, the results showed that high school students' avoidant help-seeking behaviour was influenced by their fear of being perceived as dumb by classmates and by their view of their own mathematical intelligence. The results also showed that the high school students' public helpseeking behaviour correlated with their fear of being perceived as dumb by their classmates.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Background: Gross anatomy is a foundational medical school course upon which other courses and patient care is grounded; however, variability in student performance suggests potential in studying underlying non-academic factors to explain some of these inconsistencies. Thus, this study examined medical students’ implicit theories of intelligence (ITI) and grit in order to better understand student learning outcomes in gross anatomy. Methods: A mixed methods study was conducted using 2nd, 3rd, and 4th year medical students who successfully completed gross anatomy. Students (n=382) completed the ITI Scale and Short Grit Scale in order to identify individual’s ITI and grit scores. Subsequent interviews (n=25) were conducted to explore how medical students set goals, operated while reaching those goals, and monitored their progress in achieving those goals. Results: Entity and incremental theorists with high grit performed significantly better in gross anatomy when compared to those with low grit. Further, highly gritty incremental and entity theorists were hard workers and showed resilience in the face of challenges. Specifically, those with an entity ITI had the central goal of getting an honors grade, while those with an incremental ITI desired to understand and apply their anatomical knowledge. Conversely, low grit individuals became overwhelmed by challenges, were more likely to show an inconsistent work ethic, and questioned their ability to master the material. An individual’s ITI, more so than grit, drove the presence of negative emotions in a medical student, with entity theorists feeling anxious and vulnerable, and incremental theorists feeling fewer negative emotions. Finally, grit level moderated how a medical student would respond to negative emotions, with highly gritty individuals exhibiting more constructive coping mechanisms. Conclusions: These findings suggest that medical students who possess high grit and an incremental theory of intelligence have the most effective learning strategies, set achievable goals, and enlist effective coping mechanisms while learning gross anatomy. The findings and tools used in this study could be incorporated into the medical school admissions process. Finally, findings reinforce the value of examining the ITI and grit of medical students, as they can provide educators with insight regarding important non-academic factors driving learning in gross anatomy.

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