Les techniques d'interférométrie sur réflecteurs persistants, ou points stables (PSI), sont des outils particulièrement efficaces pour le suivi des déformations du sol et offrent les avantages typiques des systèmes de télédétection radar à synthèse d'ouverture (RSO) : une large couverture spatiale combinée à une résolution relativement élevée. Ces techniques sont basées sur l'analyse d'un jeu d'images RSO acquises sur une zone donnée. Elles permettent de régler le problème de décorrélation grâce à l'identification d'éléments particuliers (au sein de la cellule de résolution) dont la rétrodiffusion radar est de haute qualité et stable sur toute une série d'interférogrammes. Ces techniques sont fort efficaces (utiles ?) pour l'analyse de zones urbaines où les constructions constituent de bons réflecteurs avec une réflexion supérieure à celle du sol ; il en va de même pour des zones de campagne où la densité d'infrastructures est plus limitée. La technique PSI requiert un modèle temporel approximatif a priori pour la détection des déformations, bien que la caractérisation de l'évolution temporelle de la déformation soit communément l'un des objectifs des études. Le travail réalisé porte sur une technique PSI particulière, appelée Stable Point Network (SPN), Réseau de Points Stables, qui a été totalement développée par Altamira Information en 2003. Le travail présente de manière concise les caractéristiques de la technique et décrit les principaux produits générés : carte moyenne de déformation, séries temporelles de déformation des points mesurés, et les cartes de résidu d'erreur topographique utilisées pour géocoder de façon précise les produits PSI. Le principal objectif de cette thèse est l'identification et l'analyse des points faibles de la chaîne de traitement SPN et le développement de nouveaux outils et méthodologies pour résoudre les problèmes identifiés. Dans un premier temps, les performances de la technique SPN sont examinées et illustrées sur des cas pratiques (basés sur des sites test réels et à partir de données provenant de différents capteurs) et à l'aide de simulations. Les principaux points faibles de la technique sont identifiés et commentés, notamment le manque de paramètres automatiques de contrôle qualité, l'évaluation de la qualité des données d'entrée, la sélection de bons points pour la mesure ainsi que l'utilisation d'un modèle fonctionnel pour le déroulement de phase (franges interferometriques) basé sur une tendance linéaire de la déformation dans le temps. Différentes solutions sont ensuite envisagées. Nous nous intéressons tout particulièrement au contrôle qualité automatique dans la procédure de coregistration, en utilisant l'analyse du positionnement inter-pixel de certains points naturels, comme par exemple des pixels identifiés dans les images. L'amélioration de la sélection finale des points de mesure (carte PSI) s'obtient grâce à l'analyse de la signature du signal radar des cibles les plus puissantes présentes au sein de l'image, afin de sélectionner uniquement le centre du lobe principal du point de mesure. D'autres développements apportent plus de robustesse dans des étapes clefs, ainsi l'analyse du rotationel des estimations en lien étroit avec un réseau de mesures relatives, ou l'implémentation d'une méthodologie différente pour l'intégration qui peut être lancée en parallèle afin d'être comparée avec l'intégration classique. Enfin le principal inconvénient de la technique, c'est-à-dire l'utilisation d'un modèle linéaire de détection des déformations du sol fait l'objet d'un développement d'une nouvelle méthode d'ajustement qui permet des changements de tendance durant la période de temps considérée(...) / Persistent Scatterer Interferometric techniques are very powerful geodetic tools for land deformation monitoring that offer the typical advantages of the satellite remote sensing SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) systems : a wide coverage at a relatively high resolution. Those techniques are based on the analysis of a set of SAR images acquired over a given area. They overcome the decorrelation problem by identifying elements (in resolution cells) with a high quality returned SAR signal which remains stable in a series of interferograms. These techniques have been useful for the analysis of urban areas, where man-made objects produce good reflections that dominate over the background scattering, as well as in field areas where the density of infrastructures is more limited. Typically, PSI technique requires an approximate a priori temporal model for the detection of the deformation, even though characterizing the temporal evolution of a deformation is commonly one of the objectives of any study.This work is focused on a particular PSI technique, which is named Stable Point Network (SPN) and that it has been completely developed by Altamira Information in 2003. The work concisely outlines the main characteristics of this technique, and describes its main products: average deformation maps, deformation time series of the measured points, and the so-called maps of the residual topographic error, which are used to precisely geocode the PSI products. The main objectives of this PhD are the identification and analysis of the drawbacks of this processing chain, and the development of new tools and methodologies in order to overcome them. First, the performances of the SPN technique are examined and illustrated by means of practical cases (based on real test sites made with data coming from different sensors) and simulated scenarios.Thus, the main drawbacks of the technique are identified and discussed, such as the lack of automatic quality control parameters, the evaluation of the input data quality, the selection of good points for the measurements and the use of a functional model to unwrap the phases based on a linear deformation trend in time. Then, different enhancements are proposed. In particular, the automatic quality control of the coregistration procedure has been introduced through the analysis of the inter-pixel position of some natural point targets-like pixels identified within the images. The enhancements in the selection of the final points of measurements (the final PSI map) come by means of the analysis of the SAR signal signature of the strong targets presented within the image, in order to select only the center of the main lobe as point of measurement. The introduction of robustness within some critical steps of the technique is done by means of the analysis of the rotational of the estimates in close loops within a network of relative measurements, and by means of the implementation of a different integration methodology, which can be ran in parallel in order to compare it with the classical one. Finally, the main drawback of the technique, the use of a linear model for the detection of ground deformations, is addressed with the development of a new fitting methodology which allows possible change of trends within the analyzed time span. All those enhancements are evaluated with the use of real examples of applications and with simulated data. In particular, the new methodology for detecting non-linear ground deformations has been tested in the city of Paris, where a large stacking of ERS1/2 and ENVISAT SAR images are available. Those images are covering a very large time period of analysis at where some known non-linear ground deformations where occurring

This thesis aims at the study of small to large surface deformation that can be detected using the remote sensing interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) methods. The new developments of InSAR processing techniques allow the monitoring of surface deformation with millimeter surface change accuracy. Conventional InSAR use a pair of SAR images ("Master" and "Slave" images) in order to measure the phase difference between the two images taken at different times. The uncertainties in measurements using the conventional InSAR due to the atmospheric delay, the topographic changes and the orbital artifacts are the handicaps of this method. The idea of InSAR method is to measure the phase difference between tow SAR acquisitions. These measure refere to the ground movment according to the satellite position. In interferogram the red to blue colors refere to the pixel movement to or far from the satellite position in Line-Of-Sight (LOS) direction. In 2000's, Radar spacecraft have seen a large number of launching mission, SAR quisitions and InSAR applicability have seen explosion in differents geophysical studies due to the important SAR datas and facility of data accessibity. This SAR-mining needs other type and generation of InSAR processing.In 2001, Ferretti and others introduce a new method called Permanent Scatterer InSAR (PS) that is based on the use of more than one Slave image in InSAR processing with the same Master image. This method allows enhancing the LOS signal for each pixel (PS) by using the best time and/or space-correlated signal (from amplitude and/or from phase) for each pixel over the acquisitions. A large number of algorithms were developed for this purpose using thesame principle (variantes). In 2002, Berardino et al developed new algorithm for monitoring surface deformation based on the combination of stack of InSAR results from SAR couples respecting small baseline (SB) distance. Nowadays, these two methods represent the existing time series (TS) analysis of SAR images approaches. In addition, StaMPS software introduced by Hooper and others, in 2008 is able to combine these two methods in order to take advantages from both of this TS approaches in term of best signal correlation and reducing the signal noise errors. In this thesis, the time series studies of surface changes associate to differents geophysical phenomena will have two interest: the first is to highlight the PS and SBAS results and discuss the fiability of obtained InSAR signal with comparation with the previous studies of the same geophysical case or observations in the field and in the second time, the combined method will also validate the results obtained separately with differents TS techniques. The validation of obtained signal is assured by these two steeps: Both of PS and SBAS methods should give relatively the same interferograms and LOSdisplacement signal (in term of sign and values), in addition these results will be compared with the previous studies results or with observations on the field.In this thesis, the InSAR techniques are applied to different case-studies of small surface deformation [...]

Le système de failles de Haiyuan qui borde le plateau du Tibet au Nord-Est est un système majeur sénestre. Au cours du dernier siècle, deux grands séismes (M~8) ont rompu ce système de failles: le séisme de Haiyuan en 1920 et le séisme de Gulang en 1927. A l'aide d'interférométrie radar à synthèse d'ouverture, nous analysons les variations spatiales et temporelles de la déformation intersismique au travers de la faille de Haiyuan, dans une zone étendue (150x150 km2) qui couvre l'extrémité Ouest de la rupture de 1920 et la lacune sismique de Tianzhu. Avec une approche dite en Small Baseline, nous traitons cinq séries temporelles d'images SAR, acquises par le satellite Envisat le long de tracks descendantes et ascendantes pendant la période allant de 2003 à 2009. Les cartes de vitesse moyenne de déformation dans la ligne de visée du satellite ainsi obtenues sont cohérentes avec un mouvement sénestre au travers de la faille et montrent des variations latérales du gradient de vitesse dans la zone de faille. Nous inversons ces cartes de vitesse moyenne en LOS pour obtenir le taux de chargement à court terme en profondeur et la distribution du glissement dans la partie sismogène le long du plan de faille. Le taux de chargement en profondeur est d'environ 5mm/an. Les sections de faille ayant rompu en 1920 et une grande partie de la lacune sismique de Tianzhu sont bloquées en surface. Entre ces deux sections, un segment de 35 km de long, qui montre une forte activité micro-sismique, glisse de manière asismique avec un taux de glissement horizontal qui atteint presque 5 mm/an. Cependant, le taux de glissement asismique le long de la partie sismogène varie le long du plan de faille et atteint localement des taux supérieurs au chargement tectonique, suggérant des variations temporelles du glissement asismique. La comparaison de profils moyens de vitesse parallèle à la faille issus de données InSAR sur les périodes 1993-1998 (données ERS) et 2003-2009 suggèrent une migration vers la surface du glissement asismique sur une période de 20~ans. Une analyse en séries temporelles des données Envisat, en appliquant un lissage temporel, montrent une accélération du taux de glissement asismique pendant l'année 2007. Cette accélération est précédée et a probablement été déclenchée par un séisme de magnitude 4.7 au sein même du glissement asismique. Enfin, nous étudions la relation entre l'évolution spatio-temporelle du glissement asismique en surface et la rugosité de la trace de la faille à l'aide d'une analyse multi-échelle. Nous montrons que les propriétés élastiques de la croûte cassante contrôlent la rugosité de la faille, qui exerce à son tour un contrôle sur la distribution de glissement asismique en surface. Le glissement asismique est fait de spasmes qui interagissent les uns avec les autres en suivant une loi d'échelle similaire à la loi de Gutenberg-Richter pour les séismes. / The Haiyuan fault system is a major left-lateral fault system bounding the tibetan plateau to the north-east. Two M~8 earthquakes ruptured that fault system in the past hundred years: the 1920, Haiyuan earthquake and the 1927, Gulang earthquake. Here, we use Synthetic Aperture Radar interferometry to explore the spatial and temporal variations of the interseismic deformation across the Haiyuan fault, over a broad (150x150 km2) area covering the 1920 rupture zone and the millennial Tianzhu seismic gap. Using a small baseline approach, we process five SAR images time series acquired by the Envisat satellite along descending and ascending orbits, spanning the 2003-2009 period. The resulting mean Line-Of-Sight velocity maps are, in overall, consistent with left-lateral motion across the fault and reveal lateral variations of the velocity gradient in the near fault zone. We invert these mean LOS velocity maps for the short-term loading rate on the fault plane at depth and for the shallow slip distribution along the seismogenic part of the fault. The short-term loading rate is about 5 mm/yr. The shallow sections of the fault, that ruptured in 1920 and the most part of the Tianzhu seismic gap are currently locked. In between, a 35 km-long section, that experiences a strong micro-seismic activity, is creeping at a mean horizontal rate of almost 5 mm/yr. However, the shallow creep rate varies along the fault strike and locally reaches values higher than the deep loading rate. This suggests temporal fluctuations of the observed aseismic slip. The comparison of InSAR-derived averaged profiles of the fault parallel velocity, spanning the 1993-1998 (ERS data) and 2003-2009 periods, suggests an upward migration of the creep over the 20 years-long observation period. A time series analysis on the Envisat dataset using a temporal smoothing reveals a creep rate increase during the year 2007. This rate increase follows and may have been triggered by a M4.7 earthquake that occurred on the creeping patch. We finally investigate the relationship between the spatio-temporal evolution of the surface creep and the roughness of the surface fault trace with a multiscale analysis. We show the control of the elastic properties of the brittle crust on the fault roughness, that in turn exerts a direct control on the surface aseismic slip distribution. The aseismic slip is made of locally interacting bursts that follow a scaling law similar to the Gutenberg-Richter law for earthquakes.

Trois méthodes de télédétection (Lidar, interférométrie radar satellitaire et photogrammétrie aérienne) ont été appliquées pour quantifier les évolutions spatiales et temporelles de deux glissements argileux (Harmalière et Avignonet, situés dans la région du Trièves, Alpes françaises) en complément d’instrumentation in-situ. Une analyse géomorphologique a été réalisée à partir d’ortho-photos (depuis 1948) et du MNT Lidar filtré. Couplée à des reconnaissances géophysiques, elle a montré que la cinématique différente des deux glissements contigus était partiellement contrôlée par la paléotopographie sur laquelle s’est déposée la couche d’argile. La rugosité directionnelle a permis de distinguer les processus d’érosion résultant de mouvements gravitaires et de ravinement. Une technique de corrélation d'images adaptée aux MNT a été développée pour obtenir les vecteurs de déplacement 3D entre deux acquisitions Lidar (2006 - 2009), avec une attention particulière portée à l’évaluation de la qualité des mesures. La carte des déplacements obtenue montre que la zone la plus active du glissement de Harmalière entre 1981 et 2001 est maintenant relativement lente (déplacement <0.4 m en 3 ans), contrairement à d’autres zones proches montrant des mouvements importants atteignant 3m avec une composante rotationnelle. Pour le glissement d’Avignonet, les déplacements déduits augmentent généralement vers le pied du glissement et peuvent atteindre 1 m. La technique des réflecteurs permanents en interférométrie radar a permis de déterminer de nouvelles valeurs de taux de déplacements (entre 1992 et 2000) en 16 points du glissement, qui sont cohérentes avec les données GPS existantes. Le taux moyen de recul à long terme de l’escarpement principal a été estimé à 1-5 cm/an à Avignonet et entre 7 et 14 cm/an à l'Harmalière. La régression du glissement d’Avignonet semble contrôlée par l’érosion du sommet de la couche d’alluvions compactes reposant sur le substratum. La présence d’une paleovallée du Drac sous le pied du glissement de l'Harmalière pourrait expliquer cette différence de cinématique entre les deux glissements. / Three remote sensing techniques, Lidar, satellite radar interferometry and aerial photogrammetry are applied to quantify the spatial and temporal evolution of two clayey landslides (Avignonet and Harmalière, located in the Trièves area, French Alps) in complement to in-situ instrumentations. A geomorphological analysis based on Lidar-derived filtered DEM, coupled to analysis of ortho-photos dating back to 1948 and geophysical investigations, shows that the different evolution of the neighbouring landslides could be partly controlled by the paleotopography of the bedrock underlying the clay layer. Directional roughness is shown to help distinguishing between landsliding and gully erosion patterns. Cross-correlation technique adapted to DEMs has been developed to derive 3D-displacement-vectors between two Lidar acquisitions (2006 and 2009), paying attention on measure quality assessment. The displacement map reveals that, at the Harmalière landslide, the main sliding channel, very active from 1981 - 2001, is now relatively slow (< 0.4 m over 3 years), in contrast with four surrounding distinct areas of large movements (up to 3 m) partly with rotational components. At the Avignonet landslide, displacements generally increase towards the toe (up to 1 m near the drainage outlets). Persistent Scatterers Interferometry technique allows to derive new reliable displacement-rates (1992 - 2000) at 16 points of the Avignonet landslide, consistent with GPS time-series. The long-term average headscarp retreat rates are estimated to 1 - 5 cm/y at Avignonet and 7 - 14cm/y at Harmalière. The retreat of the Avignonet landslide seems to be controlled by the erosion of the top of the underlying compacted alluvial layers. The presence of a paleovalley (Drac river) below the Harmalière toe could explain the difference of kinematics between the two landslides.

Kubhörnsreflektorer används som måltavlor med kontinuerlig och identifierbar reflekterad signalstyrka vid fjärranalys, bland annat för tekniken ”interferometric synthetic aperture radar” [InSAR]. Kubhörnsreflektorer tillämpas exempelvis för bevakning av sättningar i jordytan och kalibrering av [SAR]-system (”synthetic aperture radar”). Hur starkt en kubhörnsreflektor reflekterar satellitsignaler anges med ”radar cross section” [RCS], som minskar vid deformationer såsom avvikelse från ortogonalitet mellan reflektorplåtar, buktighet och ytoregelbundenheter. Därmed är det viktigt att kunna mäta och analysera sådana deformationer. Studiens syfte var att undersöka hur väl fotobaserad skanning [FBS] och terrester laserskanning [TLS] kan användas för att göra deformationsmätningar på kubhörnsreflektorer. En problematik med kubhörnsreflektorer är att ytorna vanligtvis är reflekterande och texturlösa.  Skanningen genomfördes i fältmiljö och FBS gjordes med en systemkamera. FBS-tekniken som användes i studien är baserad på Structure-from-Motion [SfM], vilket automatiserar bildmatchning och 3D-modellering. TLS utfördes med en Leica C10 på kort avstånd, cirka 2 m, från kubhörnsreflektorerna. Insamlade punktmoln segmenterades till separata punktmoln motsvarande de enskilda reflektorplåtarna och referensplan skapades för dessa. Referensplanen användes för att mäta vinklar mellan reflektorplåtar i alla punktmoln, med uppmätta avvikelser från ortogonalitet på 0–0,8°. Buktighet mättes som avstånd mellan plåtarnas punktmoln och referensplan och varierade mycket mellan de två reflektorernas sidor och mellan TLS och FBS, i ett spann från 0 till 6 mm. Ytoregelbundenheter i form av popnitar med storlek 0,6 mm kunde mätas i FBS-punktmoln. Mätosäkerheten var generellt något lägre för deformationsmätningar utifrån TLS jämfört med FBS i studien. Både TLS och FBS har begränsningar vid skanning av kubhörnsreflektorer på grund av reflektorernas ytegenskaper. För FBS kan dessa problem minskas med åtgärder i fält, såsom extra fokuspunkter och artificiell yttextur. TLS-resultat påverkades av infallsvinkeln mot reflektorplåtarna vid skanningen, eftersom en stor infallsvinkel leder till få returer och för liten infallsvinkel riskerar att leda till returer med hög intensitet (och felaktig position). Uppmätt deformation i studien skulle motsvara som mest en förlust på strax över en fjärdedel av det maximala RCS-värdet för den studerade reflektortypen. Den största RCS-förlusten i den här studien berodde på uppmätt buktighet i bottenplåten, i kontrast med att RCS-värdet enligt tidigare studier anses mer känsligt för avvikelse från ortogonalitet mellan reflektorplåtar. / Corner reflectors are used as targets with a continuous and identifiable reflected signal in remote sensing, commonly used with interferometric synthetic aperture radar [InSAR]. Corner reflectors are applied for monitoring crustal changes and calibrating synthetic aperture radar [SAR]-systems. The strength of the reflected radar signal is measured with radar cross section [RCS]. The RCS decreases if the reflector has deformations, such as deviation from orthogonality of the reflector plates, the plate curvature and surface irregularities. Therefore, it is important to be able to measure and analyse these kinds of deformations. The aim of this study was to examine how well close-range photogrammetry [CRP] and terrestrial laser scanning [TLS] can be used to measure deformations of corner reflectors. A problematic aspect of corner reflectors are their surfaces, that usually are reflective and textureless.  Scanning was conducted in a field environment and CRP was performed with a digital camera. The CRP-technique used in this study is based on Structure-from-Motion [SfM], which automates the image matching and 3D-modeling. TLS was done with a Leica C10 at short range from the corner reflector, about 2 m. The point clouds were segmented into separate point clouds for each reflector plate and reference planes were fitted to them. The reference planes were used to measure angles between reflector plates, with measured deviations from orthogonality between 0-0,8°. Plate curvature was measured as the distance from the point cloud to the reference plane and varied between the reflector sides and between TLS and CRP, in an interval from 0 to 6 mm. Surface irregularities in the shape of pop rivets, 0,6 mm in size, could be measured in the CRP-point clouds. Measurement uncertainties were generally lower in measurements based on TLS compared to CRP. Both TLS and CRP have limitations when scanning corner reflectors, caused by surface properties of the corner reflector. These problems can be reduced for CRP with certain field measures, such as extra focus points and artificial surface texture. The TLS results were affected by the incident angle while scanning, since a large incident angle leads to few return pulses and a too small incident angle may lead to returns with high intensity (and incorrect position). Measured deformation in this study would be equivalent to a reduction of RCS slightly above one fourth of the maximum RCS-value for the studied corner reflector type. In contrast to earlier studies, which say that RCS is most sensitive to lack of orthogonality between the plates, the largest reduction of RCS in this study was caused by the measured plate curvature of the bottom plate.

Coastal areas of Southeast Asia are progressively threatened by flooding as a consequence of more frequent precipitation extremes and rising sea levels. Especially urban areas are affected by flood risk which is additionally increased by surface subsidence related to building activities and groundwater extraction. However, the severity of subsidence as well as its triggers and environmental interrelations are only little understood. This study measures surface subsidence for Hue city by using persistent scatterer radar interferometry (PS-InSAR). A series of 53 images acquired by the Sentinel-1 radar satellite between 2018 and 2019 was analyzed to reliably retrieve surface changes at the millimeter scale. The overall displacement ranges between -25 and +10 millimeters per year. Its spatial distribution was then compared to the extent of different soil types in the study area to conduct an analysis of variance (ANOVA). The results confirmed a significant difference between the soil types with Plinthic Acrisols as the soil type having the largest negative average surface velocity. Possible triggers are the intrusion of slack water from the surrounding rice cultivation areas and construction activities which lead to increasing weight and soil compaction. The findings shall raise awareness for the topic and underline the demand for further research. / Mưa lớn và nước biển dâng là những nguyên nhân gây lũ lụt ngày càng nghiêm trọng ở các khu vực ven biển Đông Nam Á. Đặc biệt việc gia tăng công trình xây dựng và khai thác nước ngầm gây sụt lún bề mặt dẫn đến ngập lụt ở các vùng đô thị. Tuy nhiên, các nghiên cứu về mối tương quan giữa sụt lún bề mặt với các hiện tượng môi trường chưa được chú trọng nhiều. Trong nghiên cứu này, độ lún bề mặt của thành phố Hue được đo bằng phương pháp giao thoa radar tán xạ liên tục (PS-InSAR). Phân tích 53 ảnh vệ tinh Sentinel-1 từ năm 2018-2019 cho thấy sự thay đổi tổng thể bề mặt dao động từ -25mm đến 10mm mỗi năm. Phân tích phương sai (ANOVA) cho thấy sự thay đổi bề mặt khác nhau tùy từng loại đất, trong đó đất đỏ vàng (Plinthic Acrisols) có tốc độ sụt lún trung bình cao nhất. Các tác nhân có thể là do sự xâm nhập của nước từ các vùng trồng lúa xung quanh và các hoạt động xây dựng dẫn đến tăng trọng lượng và nén đất. Những phát hiện này là cơ hội nâng cao nhận thức về sự sụt lún bề mặt và cần được nghiên cứu thêm.

The objective of this research is to explore the information content of repeat-pass cross-track Interferometric SAR (InSAR) with regard to snow, in particular Snow Water Equivalent (SWE) and snow depth. The study is an outgrowth of earlier snow cover modeling and radar interferometry experiments at Schefferville, Quebec, Canada and elsewhere which has shown that for reasons of loss of coherence repeat-pass InSAR is not useful for the purpose of snow cover mapping, even when used in differential InSAR mode. Repeat-pass cross-track InSAR would overcome this problem. As at radar wavelengths dry snow is transparent, the main reflection is at the snow/ground interface. The high refractive index of ice creates a phase delay which is linearly related to the water equivalent of the snow pack. When wet, the snow surface is the main reflector, and this enables measurement of snow depth. Algorithms are elaborated accordingly. Field experiments were conducted at two sites and employ two different types of digital elevation models (DEM) produced by means of cross track InSAR. One was from the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission digital elevation model (SRTM DEM), flown in February 2000. It was compared to the photogrammetrically produced Canadian Digital Elevation Model (CDEM) to examine snow-related effects at a site near Schefferville, where snow conditions are well known from half a century of snow and permafrost research. The second type of DEM was produced by means of airborne cross track InSAR (TOPSAR). Several missions were flown for this purpose in both summer and winter conditions during NASA's Cold Land Processes Experiment (CLPX) in Colorado, USA. Differences between these DEM's were compared to snow conditions that were well documented during the CLPX field campaigns. The results are not straightforward. As a result of automated correction routines employed in both SRTM and AIRSAR DEM extraction, the snow cover signal is contaminated. Fitting InSAR DEM's to known topography distorts the snow information, just as the snow cover distorts the topographic information. The analysis is therefore mostly qualitative, focusing on particular terrain situations. At Schefferville, where the SRTM was adjusted to known lake levels, the expected dry-snow signal is seen near such lakes. Mine pits and waste dumps not included in the CDEM are depicted and there is also a strong signal related to the spatial variations in SWE produced by wind redistribution of snow near lakes and on the alpine tundra. In Colorado, cross-sections across ploughed roads support the hypothesis that in dry snow the SWE is measurable by differential InSAR. They also support the hypothesis that snow depth may be measured when the snow cover is wet. Difference maps were also extracted for a 1 km2 Intensive Study Area (ISA) for which intensive ground truth was available. Initial comparison between estimated and observed snow properties yielded low correlations which improved after stratification of the data set.In conclusion, the study shows that snow-related signals are measurable. For operational applications satellite-borne cross-track InSAR would be necessary. The processing needs to be snow-specific with appropriate filtering routines to account for influences by terrain factors other than snow.

In this research, the fundamental mechanics for the changes in stresses and strains states due to groundwater pumping is formulated. This was accomplished by developing a 3D closed form solution. The results from this research are compared with results of finite element (FE) analyses and data obtained from interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR). Land subsidence (LS) due to groundwater pumping from a single well for different geological profiles and the reason why LS continues after groundwater pumping cessation were investigated. FE analyses for four different scenarios were used to investigate the effects of cemented layers and non-cemented layers above the aquifer on EF initiation. A practical method which is based on the stiffness and cementation strength of the cemented layer and the gradient of the slope of the subsidence bowl (ɑ) was proposed to determine earth fissure (EF) initiation. Three-point bending beam test was conducted in the lab to determine the mode of failure and the modulus of rupture of a local cemented soil that occurs in areas where EFs were observed. The major findings are as follows. LS due to groundwater pumping consists of i) isotropic compression and ii) simple shear on vertical planes with rotation. For a parabolic distribution of groundwater level in a homogenous aquifer, simple shear on vertical planes will be dominant when the characteristic length of the aquifer is larger than √2 times the aquifer thickness. Fine-grained soils are responsible for LS occurring after the cessation of pumping and for sagging in LS profiles. Regardless of the stiffness and cementation strength of the top layer above the aquifer, EF will not initiate if ɑ is less than 8x10⁻⁵. When the stiffness of the top cemented layer increases, it becomes more prone to EF initiation. However if the layer is stiff enough to be classified as "rock" then a higher value of ɑ is needed to initiate an EF. The experiments show that the preferred mode of failure of a cemented soil is shear rather than bending and existing cracks significantly influence the results of EF formation.

In this thesis I use Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) and GPS geodetic observations, along with numerical models, to examine the distribution of strain, assess seismic hazard, and study the dynamics of deformation across Turkey and Iran. I measure interseismic strain accumulation across the Ashkabad fault using InSAR, and find that atmospheric corrections using MERIS (Medium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer) data are necessary in order to retrieve the tectonic signal in the presence of large atmospheric delays. I estimate a slip rate of 5-12 mm/yr for the Ashkabad fault which is faster than previous geodetic estimates. I also attempt to validate atmospheric corrections derived from the ERA-Interim numerical weather model and find that they do not work satisfactorily for this region. I produce InSAR-derived velocity maps for five overlapping tracks in Eastern Turkey, covering both the North Anatolian Fault (NAF) and East Anatolian Fault (EAF), and measure slip rates for the NAF and EAF of 20+/-3 mm/yr and 10+/-2 mm/yr respectively. I calculate a velocity field for Eastern Turkey from these InSAR data and a compilation of GPS data, and find that strain is mainly localised across the NAF and EAF and that there is negligible differential vertical motion across the Anatolian Plateau. I construct a thin viscous sheet model for Iran and find that the GPS velocity field is well described by deformation of a ductile lithosphere. Contrary to previous suggestions, a rigid central Iran is not required to match the kinematics of Iranian deformation, but buoyancy forces acting in the lithosphere are found to play an important role. I develop a new method to assess slip rates and therefore seismic hazard on major faults in Iran from this continuum model. In this thesis I have measured slip rates across three major strike-slip faults using InSAR; the first time this has been achieved for the Ashkabad fault and the EAF. I have demonstrated the importance of atmospheric correction for these results, and have shown that Iran deforms as a continuous medium.

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