The purpose of this paper is to study China’s income inequality under rapid economic growth.Does the relationship between economic growth and income inequality in China follow theKuznets hypothesis? What is the main cause and trend of China’s income inequality? We usedata which covers the period 1980-2005 to analyze the overall inequality, and data coveringthe period 1980-2002 to analyze the inequality inside rural and urban areas. The derivedresults doubt the validity of Kuznets hypothesis on explaining the relationship betweeneconomic growth and income inequality in China. Also we derive the trend of China’sincreased income inequality and find that the urban-rural income disparity is the main causeof China’s income inequality.

This dissertation aims to provide evidence on the inter-relationship between per-capita income variation and worker effort indices through nutritional intakes or income to food expenditure ratio. Based on these worker effort indices, there are two data sets / 69 countries data for the year 1980, 1990 and 2000 and 17 regionalized Turkish provinces data for 1994 and 2003. One major contribution is the definition of human and physical capital interactions since accumulation of human capital (H) and physical capital (K) depends on each other within a given technology. This is called &ldquo / complementary interaction&rdquo / . Therefore, we emphasize K and H ratios are key factors in an economy rather than the absolute sizes. Another our main contribution to the literature is the data sources we employ. The 1980, 1990 and 2000 data are the first in the literature for 69 countries and more importantly, it is the first study for Turkish provincial level. While some studies are held for particular countries in terms of health proxy levels, there is no such study of any type pertaining to the Turkish economy. Our health proxies empirically play a very important role in our economic growth study. While health proxies make an important contribution in explaining income disparity approach, we do not see such effect on the convergence rate.

Актуальность и важность изучения явления дифференциации населения по доходам во многом определяются его связью с уровнем экономического развития территории. Итак, с одной стороны, основой рассматриваемой дифференциации является процесс распределения совокупного дохода (валовой добавленной стоимости) между отдельными домохозяйствами; с другой стороны, динамика экономического развития страны в целом и отдельных ее регионов во многом определяется эффективностью этого распределения, в том числе субъективными ощущениями населения относительно его (распределения) справедливости. Цель работы основана на разработке подхода, анализирующего пространственную дифференциацию доходов населения с использованием методов машинного обучения. Объектом работы является траектория социально-экономического развития регионов. Предметом является применение методов машинного обучения для анализа пространственной дифференциации доходов населения России. Научная новизна заключается в разработке методики анализа пространственной дифференциации доходов населения и оценки ее влияния на экономическое развитие регионов. Практическая значимость работы заключается в том, что данная работа позволяет сформулировать характеристики социально-экономического развития групп регионов, на основе которых формируются их стратегии развития и инвестиционная политика в соответствующих сферах жизни субъектов. Российской Федерации. Разработанная методология кластерного анализа позволяет формировать устойчивые региональные кластеры по уровню социально-экономического развития субъектов Российской Федерации. Проведенная кластеризация с учетом степени дифференциации доходов регионов может быть использована при реализации кластерно-ориентированной государственной политики по поддержке опережающего развития субъектов. / The relevance and importance of the study of the phenomenon of population differentiation by income are largely determined by its relationship with the level of economic development of the territory. So, on the one hand, the basis of the differentiation under consideration is the process of distribution of total income (gross value added) between individual households; on the other hand, the dynamics of economic development of the country as a whole and its individual regions are largely determined by the effectiveness of this distribution, including the subjective feelings of the population regarding its (distribution) fairness. The aim of the work is based on the development of an approach that analyzes spatial differentiation of incomes of the population with the use of machine learning methods. The object of the work is the trajectory of socio-economic development of regions. The subject is the application of machine learning methods to analyze the spatial differentiation of incomes of the Russian population. The scientific novelty lies in the development of a methodology for analyzing the spatial differentiation of incomes of the population and assessing its impact on the economic development of regions. The practical significance of the work lies in the fact that this work allows us to formulate the characteristics of the socio-economic development of groups of regions, based on which their development strategies and investment policy are formed in the relevant spheres of life of the subjects of the Russian Federation. The developed methodology of cluster analysis makes it possible to form stable regional clusters according to the socio-economic development of the subjects of the Russian Federation. The performed clustering, considering the degree of income differentiation of the regions, can be used in the implementation of cluster-oriented state policy to support the accelerated development of the subjects.

Thesis (MBA (Business Management))--Stellenbosch University, 2008. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study’s objective was to investigate what black economic empowerment (BEE) means to Namibians and what impact it has had on development in Namibia. The study also did research in South Africa for the purpose of benchmarking. Namibians in general understand and embrace BEE, but it is clear from the study that Namibians are highly skeptical about its impact in terms of empowering those who were previously disadvantaged. The purpose of BEE is to empower black people. The challenge, however, is that seventeen years after independence there is no policy yet on BEE in Namibia. Critics of affirmative action argue that it is not worthwhile empowering only certain groups of people and excluding the able-bodied, white male Namibians while the country has adopted the policy of national reconciliation, irrespective of what happened in the past. They argue that it would be fair to select people based on class, rather than race, gender or ethnicity. It is true that the picture painted so far on empowerment is skewed, but it is important to note that BEE is not about empowering the black elite or the middle class at the expense of those who really need to be economically empowered; it is about allowing every citizen of the country to participate fully in the economic development of his/her country. The research was conducted in Namibia and also partly in South Africa, as it used progress on BEE in South Africa as a yardstick. In Namibia, statements made by leaders in different sectors were studied and analysed, since there is no written policy on BEE. The study conducted surveys on businesses, including companies that have benefited from BEE, state owned enterprises, government institutions and small and medium enterprises. Individuals were also selected across the broad spectrum, of whom some were interviewed face-to-face and others through questionnaires. The study repeated the same process in South Africa, the only difference being that in South Africa it included study and analysis of policy documents. The aim of the study was to find out how far Namibia has gone in empowering its people and how this compares to neighbouring South Africa. The analysis was done in the following way: data from different sectors were compared and also assessed against targets set by different sectors or industries in their sectoral charters. Data from different industries in Namibia were also compared to similar industries in South Africa. In order to determine whether there has been any progress in terms of BEE since Namibia’s independence eighteen years ago, the results obtained during this study were compared to the figures that were available at the time of independence. The study has established that, although the Namibian government had set up a committee headed by the Office of the Prime Minister to come up with a legislative framework for the drafting and implementing of BEE policy in 2000, no such policy exists to date. All the companies included in this study indicated that they have submitted their affirmative action (AA) reports to the office of the Employment Equity Commissioner and that they adhere to this policy; yet the study has established that most of the companies do not adhere to the AA policy. There is a high degree of income disparity in Namibia, where the richest 10% of the population receives 65% of the total income. The study also found that Namibia does not have any shares in companies that were established after independence, especially in the mining industry, whereas mining is the backbone of Namibia’s economy. According to the findings of this study, with regard to the BEE agreements announced and signed so far, only those who already have wealth or are well-connected benefit from these deals. There is no controlling mechanism in place for BEE agreements and, as a result, companies choose who they want to do business with. In South Africa, the study has established, the majority of the companies have their own broad based black economic empowerment (BBBEE) policies and all the industries have either implemented or drafted their industry BBBEE charters. Although the government has laid down a good foundation for the rest of the institutions to build on, South Africa still has a long way to go, because the majority of its people are still living in abject poverty. The study established that people sitting on the committee to draft the BEE policy are permanently employed in other positions within the Government and when it comes to prioritizing jobs, BEE is not regarded as one of the most important topics. It recommends that the government appoint people on the committee either permanently or on a fixed-term contract basis, so that these people can concentrate only on drafting and implementing the BEE policy. In line with the annual AA reports submitted, businesses should submit annual BEE reports to the government. This would ensure that some efforts are made to address BEE and, as is the case with AA, most of the companies, if not all, should be required to appoint BEE coordinators in their structures to drive the process. It is also recommended that there must be a graduating system whereby companies and individuals who have attained a certain level with regard to BEE should graduate out of the system in order to give others a chance to benefit. Businesses that have never benefited before should get preference when awarding tenders and quotas. Lastly, the study recommends that the Namibian government create a fund to which all registered companies would be required to contribute a certain percentage of their profits. These funds would be used for skills development, since skills development and transfer are the most important components of economic empowerment. The study has found that many firms have good governance, they practice diversity, they are doing very well financially and their company policies also state that they reward their employees in an unbiased way; but that can, nevertheless, not be taken as a guarantee to success in BEE. There is a fast-growing middle class of black people in Namibia, but the most important thing for Namibia, however, is to determine how this middle class can contribute to the creation of wealth for the majority of Namibians. Although there are clear indications in South Africa that there is a strong presence of BEE, at least for middle class black people, much remains to be done to address the issue of poverty. Finally, there are government policies and legislations that were created to advance black people, but the success of these policies and regulations depends on the management strategies that can create a conducive environment for black people. The corporate culture in private and public institutions needs to change so as to accept and accommodate black people in order for them to make a significant contribution to the economic development of Namibia. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van hierdie studie was om vas te stel wat swart ekonomiese bemagtiging (SEB) vir Namibiërs beteken en watter invloed dit op ontwikkeling in Namibië gehad het. Om ‘n maatstaf te stel het die studie ook navorsing in Suid-Afrika gedoen. Hoewel Namibiërs in die algemeen SEB verstaan en aanvaar, is dit uit die studie duidelik dat hulle hoogs skepties is oor die impak wat dit gehad het in die bemagtiging van voorheen benadeeldes. Die doel van SEB is om swartmense, vrouens en mense met gestremdhede te bemagtig. Die uitdaging is egter dat daar in Namibië sewentien jaar na onafhanklikheid steeds geen beleid ten opsigte van SEB is nie. Kritici van regstellende aksie redeneer dat dit nie verdienstelik is om sekere groepe te bevoordeel terwyl bekwame blanke Namibiese mans uitgesluit word nie.; dit terwyl die land ’n beleid van nasionale rekonsiliasie aanvaar het, in weerwil van gebeure in die verlede. Hulle reken dat dit regverdig sou wees om mense eerder op grond van klas as ras, geslag of etnisiteit te selekteer. Toegegee dat ’n skewe beeld van bemagtiging sover voorgehou is; tog is dit belangrik om te besef dat die doel van SEB is om elke burger van die land die geleentheid te gee om ten volle in ekonomiese ontwikkeling te deel en nie om die swart elite of middelklas te bevoordeel ten koste van dié wat werklik behoefte aan bemagtiging het nie. Navorsing is in Namibië gedoen en ook gedeeltelik in Suid-Afrika om vordering ten opsigte van SEB in dié land as maatstaf aan te wend. Die navorsing bestudeer en analiseer uitlatings deur leiers in verskillende sektore in Namibië, aangesien daar geen geskrewe SEB beleid is nie. Opnames is gedoen van besighede, insluitend maatskappye wat bevoordeel is uit SEB, ondernemings in staatsbesit, regeringsinstellings en klein en medium ondernemings. Daar is ook insette verkry van ’n breë spektrum van individue – deur persoonlike onderhoude of deur middel van vraelyste. Hierdie proses is in Suid-Afrika herhaal, waar ’n studie en analise van beleidsdokumente ingesluit is. Die doelwit met hierdie studie was om vas te stel hoe ver Namibië gevorder het in die bemagtiging van sy mense en hoe dit met die situasie in Suid-Afrika vergelyk. Die analise is soos volg gedoen: data van verskillende sektore is vergelyk en ook evalueer teen doelwitte wat in die handves van verskillende sektore of industrieë uiteengesit is. Data van industrieë in Namibië is ook vergelyk met soortgelyke industrieë in Suid-Afrika. Om vas te stel of enige vordering ten opsigte van SEB gemaak is sedert Namibië se onafhanklikheid agtien jaar gelede, is die navorsingsresultate van hierdie studie vergelyk met syfers wat op daardie tydstip beskikbaar was. Die studie het vasgestel dat die Namibiese regering in 2000 ’n komitee onder leiding van die Kantoor van die Eerste Minister aangestel het om ’n wetgewende raamwerk vir die opstel en implementering van ’n SEB beleid daar te stel. Tot op hede is daar egter nog nie so ’n beleid geformuleer nie. Al die maatskappye wat ingesluit is in hierdie studie het aangedui dat hulle regstellende aksie (RA) verslae aan die kantoor van die Diensbillikheid Kommissaris lewer en dat hulle hierdie beleid volg. Nogtans het die studie vasgestel dat die meeste van die maatskappye nie die RA voorskrifte nakom nie. Daar bestaan groot ongelykheid ten opsigte van inkomste in Namibië, waar die rykste 10% van die bevolking 65% van die inkomste verdien. Die studie het ook gevind dat Namibië geen aandele besit in maatskappye wat na onafhanklikheid tot stand gekom het nie, veral in mynbou, wat eintlik die ruggraat van die ekonomie vorm. Volgens die bevindinge van hierdie studie bevoordeel SEB ooreenkomste slegs diegene wat reeds rykdom besit of die regte verbintenisse het. Daar is geen beheermaatreëls in plek vir SEB ooreenkomste nie en gevolglik kies maatskappye met wie hulle besigheid wil doen. Tydens die studie is vasgestel dat die meerderheid maatskappye in Suid-Afrika hulle eie beleid het met betrekking tot breë-basis swart ekonomiese bemagtiging (BBSEB) en dat die industrieë hulle BBSEB industrie handves implementeer of opstel. Hoewel die regering ’n goeie grondslag gelê het vir ander instansies om op voort te bou, het Suid-Afrika nog ’n lang pad om te gaan, aangesien die meerderheid van die land se mense nog in groot armoede leef. Die studie het gevind dat die lede van die komitee wat die SEB beleid moet ontwerp voltydse posisies binne die regering beklee en dat SEB nie as ’n prioriteit gesien word nie. Daar word dus aanbeveel dat die regering mense permanent of op ‘n vaste termyn kontrak basis op die komitee aanstel, sodat hierdie persone op die opstel en implementering van die SEB beleid kan konsentreer. Indien vereis sou word dat besighede jaarliks RA verslae aan die regering inhandig, in lyn met die jaarlikse SEB verslae, sou dit verseker dat ’n poging aangewend word om SEB aan te spreek. Soos die geval is met RA, behoort van die meeste maatskappye, indien nie almal nie, verwag te word dat hulle SEB koördineerders in hulle strukture aanstel om die proses te dryf. Daar word ook aanbeveel dat ’n graduering sisteem ingestel word deur middel waarvan maatskappye en individue wat ’n sekere prestasievlak ten opsigte van SEB bereik het uit die sisteem gradueer om ander ’n kans te gee om voordeel te geniet. Besighede wat nog geen voordeel getrek het nie sou dan voorkeur geniet tydens die toeken van tenders en kwotas. Laastens beveel die studie aan dat die Namibiese regering ’n fonds skep waartoe alle geregistreerde maatskappye ’n seker persentasie van hulle wins moet bydra. Hierdie fonds sou aangewend word vir die ontwikkeling van vaardighede, aangesien die ontwikkeling en oordrag van vaardighede die belangrikste komponent van ekonomiese bemagtiging is. Hoewel die studie gevind het dat baie firmas goeie bestuur toepas, diversiteit beoefen, finasieel goed vaar en hulle beleid voorskryf dat werknemers sonder vooroordeel beloon word, verseker dit nie suksesvolle SEB nie. Daar is ’n vinnig-groeiende swart middelklas in Namibië en dit is belangrik om vas te stel hoe hierdie middelklas kan bydra om welstand te skep vir die meerderheid Namibiërs. Ten spyte van duidelike bewyse dat SEB in Suid-Afrika toegepas word, kan baie meer nog gedoen word om die probleem van armoede aan te spreek. Die sukses van die beleid en wetgewing wat deur die regering ingestel is om swart vooruitgang te ondersteun hang uiteindelik daarvan af dat ‘n omgewing geskep word wat bevorderlik is vir die benutting van geleenthede. Die korporatiewe kultuur in beide private en openbare instellings moet sodanig verander dat swartmense aanvaar en tegemoet gekom word, sodat hulle betekenisvol tot die ekonomiese ontwikkeling van Namibië kan bydra.

本文嘗試在傳統的R&D模型中，引入技術引進的概念，並從技術發展型態的角度來探討其與經濟成長之關係。理論的結果告訴我們各個國家會採取何種技術發展的型態決定於其本身的技術水準。技術水準愈低的國家，基於成本的誘因，會採取較具優勢的技術引進的發展策略；相反地，技術水準較高的國家，則會利用本身較佳的技術優勢而自行研發。 採取不同技術發展型態的國家，其經濟成長的型態也跟著不同。採取技術引進策略的國家其成長的速度取決於本身和世界的技術差距，當差距愈大時，成長的速度就愈快；相反地，隨著差距的縮小，成長的速度也就會跟著緩慢下來。採取研發的國家，如同大部分R&D模型的結論，其均衡的成長路徑是維持一固定的成長率。 不同於以往內生成長模型只專注於長期的成長，我們的模型中，除了具有長期持續成長的特色外，更強調各個國家由於初始條件的差異及其成長的速度和世界成長的速度的不同，致使成長的路徑也會不同，而且每個國家收歛的恆定狀態也不相同，這也說明了為什麼世界各國之間會存在廣泛的所得差異性的現象。 另外，我們的理論也強調技術落後的國家不見得會永遠處於落後的地位，只要其成長的速度足夠支持其發生技術發展型態的結構性改變，就有可能追趕上先進國家，甚至超越。而原先處於領先地位的先進國家，也有可能因本身研發的效率退步，致使成長速度落後於世界的平均水準，結果反倒是由領先的地位退到落後國家之林。 而成長的另一個普遍獲得實證支持的現象，也就是在Solow模型中預測的條件性收歛，在我們的模型中的解釋是當一個國家的成長路徑一直高於世界的平均水準的話，換言之，該國家是一直在不斷進步的過程中，則也會發生所謂條件性收歛的現象。而我們的理論更預測了另一種現象是，當一個國家的成長路徑是處於世界平均水準之下的話，也就是說是由原本的領先退步到落後的過程中，其成長的速度反倒是開始時會較慢，而在接近收歛時開始加快速度，然後達到恆定狀態，這種現象和所謂的條件性收歛恰好反其道而行，我們稱之為逆條件性收歛現象。 除了理論之外，我們更藉由數值模擬的方式進行了政策上的分析。我們發現在成長速度上處於領先地位的國家，若要保持其領先的優勢，必定要採取研發的策略。而處於成長速度較緩慢的國家，若想要擺脫落後並追趕上領先國家的話，就得靠技術引進的方式來加快其成長的速度。 同時我們亦分析了幾種改變成長速度的政策手段，發現每一種政策的效果對不同的國家而言也不盡相同，所以各個國家所應採取的手段應視其條件而定。另外，當外生的世界成長率加快時，我們發現這個現象對成長速度落後的國家是很有幫助的，因為可以使得其速度加快趕上世界的水準。