\ / Advertisements in African languages are generally confined to radio, and in that medium are factual, dialogic and direct. When used in television advertising, however, South Africa’s indigenous languages play a less informative role, being employed rather to index a concretised African essence, African identity, urban style, or a particular reified postapartheid togetherness and cultural mobility. In this dissertation I analyse six television advertisements, all using African languages or language varieties, broadcast over the years starting 2010 through to 2014. I reflect on how and why the African language is used and to what extent African languages are no longer seen by television advertisers as carriers of information but as exploitable symbols of trustworthiness, multiculturalism, belonging and innovation. Methodology includes interviews with agencies, sociolinguistic analyses of the varieties used, detail on brands and products represented by the language and a small pilot study with viewers to ascertain their responses to the six selected advertisements.

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science and Agriculture in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of General Linguistics and Modern Languages at the University of Zululand, South Africa, 2015 / This study sought to prove that indigenous African languages are not functionally viable, i.e. they do not perform an important function in the country. In this study I used literature to prove that indigenous African languages play a very little and less quintessential role in commerce, education, law and administration. I proved that the problem of language planning is not unique to South Africa, but has also dominated the politics of most countries in the world. The literature used also supported the argument that there are similarities in the African and global trends. This study further looked at why South Africa is said to be a truly multilingual country. To do that this study painted a picture of how South Africa looks in the eyes of most sociolinguists and scholars. The comparison in terms of use and viability was discussed at length, focusing on the language planning and the effects of politics in the planning process. One further singled out English and looked at its hegemony in all sectors and spheres of the country. South Africa cannot be singled out and, therefore, a sample of African countries needed to be used to support the argument that all post-colonial governments attempted to address the language policy problems in their countries and there are more similarities than differences in their approaches. The study also paid a special attention to lingua franca choices in Africa. An attempt was made to see if English qualifies to be the lingua franca of the Republic of South Africa. Finally, the study proved that some indigenous African languages will not die and will, therefore, never be extinct. A survey on language death in Africa was carried out at the Institute of Language Studies (Univ. of Cologne between 1988 and 1990). The study concluded that, generally, some African languages are extinct, threatened or in the process of extinction. It is also from this premise that we based our study.

Mass communication through the print and the electronic media has not been spared by the post-Cold-War wind of change that is sweeping across Africa and the rest of the world. According to Wilcox (1974: 37), in 1974 over 70 percent of all the newspapers that were printed in Africa were government-owned; in the same year, almost all radio and T.V. stations were owned by government. In the changing socio-eonomic climate, however, a state monopoly of the mass media in many Sub- Saharan African countries is now a thing of the past (see for instance, Bourgault 1995). Where, for example, there used to be only one or two newspapers owned by the government or the ruling party, there now exists a plethora of privately owned competing newspapers and other publications; and where there used to be only one sycophantic radio and T. V. station owned by the government, there now exist several radio and T. V. stations, many of them privately-owned commercial broadcasters. The general philosophy behind the liberalization of the mass media is what has come to be called `the freedom of speech`. Citing the liberalization of the electronic media in Kenya, this paper argues that the liberalization of the media in many Sub-Saharan countries has not been matched by policies that encourage the entrenchment, spread and full utilization of African indigenous languages. It is further argued that the lack of media policy that favours African indigenous languages is likely to lead to negative consequences for the languages of Africa.

Magister Artium (Psychology) - MA(Psych) / The central aim of this study was to explore the identity formation of black African middle class young adults in the context of their educational and language experiences in ex-model C schools. The study was motivated by a need to understand how socio-historical events which play out in language in education policies and practices, affected the identity constructions of young black adults who had been through a schooling system where English was used as the language of instruction. The study adopts social constructionism as the epistemological position, given that it considers individuals’ identities to be socially, historically and culturally constructed. Postcolonial approaches to identity construction were utilised, influenced by the works of Frantz Fanon and Hussein Bulhan. The study utilised a qualitative design, using semi-structured interviews as the method of data collection. Three participants who formerly attended ex-model C schools were interviewed. One interview was conducted for each participant. Thematic analysis was then used as a method of data analysis to identify the ways these young adults make sense of their experiences relating to identity constructions. With regard to the findings of the study, three main themes were identified, namely making sense of the new school environment, identity construction, and the role of language in the participants’ lives. Overall, findings of the study revealed that identity constructions were not static, but instead reflected the historical and social processes in which the participants lived. The participants adapted to the language of the school, and considered themselves to be multilingual as they were able to communicate in the language that was required for economic success. The present hegemonic status of English was accepted by the participants, because the ability to communicate in this language meant job security and an ability to communicate beyond boundaries. The mother tongue was still used by these participants, but it was used in contexts which were deemed appropriate by the participants. Race and class as markers of difference emerged as important constructs for identity formation. In conclusion, it was found that these young adult speakers of indigenous African languages were negating their mother tongue in the school and in social and economic contexts. In some cases, this led to alienation or feelings of inferiority. Indigenous African languages need to be promoted in the educational setting, and further acknowledged in other sectors of society and the economy. If African languages are presented as having some sort of utility in the economic sector, this will hopefully result in a change of attitude amongst indigenous African language speakers towards their own languages, contributing to the construction of multilingual identities which will reflect a truly democratic society.

Thesis (Ph.D. (Language Education)) -- University of Limpopo, 2020 / The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (Act 108 of 1996) mandates that “the official languages of the Republic are Sepedi, Sesotho, Setswana, siSwati, Tshivenda, Xitsonga, Afrikaans, English, isiNdebele, isiXhosa and isiZulu” (Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996: 4). However, only English has continued to be used as the language of teaching and communication in almost all institution of higher education. The Language Policy for Higher Education in South Africa (DBE, 2002) calls on all institutions of higher learning to develop African languages. The Bill of Rights (Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996:10) asserts that “everyone has the right to receive education in the official language or languages of their choice...”. In consensus with this, the Language Policy of the University of Limpopo (1996:3) mandates the institution, to uphold the legislative provision of multilingualism as defined and laid out in Section 6 (1) of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (1996), the Language Policy and Plan for South Africa (2000). In addition, the National Language Policy Framework (2002), and the Ministerial Committee’s Report on the Development of Indigenous African Languages as Mediums of Instruction in Higher Education (2005). However, no practical plans to meet the mandates of these language policies have been made, except in the teaching of the language as a module. Many Xitsonga university students face challenging linguistic contexts when they enter institutions of higher learning. The purpose of this study was to investigate the perceptions of students and lecturers of the use of the Xitsonga language in teaching, learning and communication at the University of Limpopo. The Xitsonga students often codemix and codeswitch during lectures and social interactions. The researcher had to identify, describe, analyse and reflect on the kinds of learning and communication practices that emerged in this context. The investigation is an ethnographic case study of the language attitudes and behaviours of the students and lecturers at the University of Limpopo. The researcher spent time with Xitsonga students and lecturers in the School of Education and in the School of Languages and Communication Studies, where Xitsonga is offered as a module. The researcher used her class in the School of Education and observed lectures in the School of Languages and Communication Studies to develop a case, which can be used to enrich an understanding of other cases. The study was qualitative in nature within interpretivism paradigm. Research techniques namely interviews, documentary analysisvii and observations were used for data collection. Critical discourse analysis (CDA) and thick descriptions were used to analyse the data coded into themes to highlight the power play between English and the indigenous languages, with particular reference to Xitsonga. The results indicated that the environment at the University of Limpopo does not afford Xitsonga students the desire and motivation required to communicate in Xitsonga. The researcher also observed that language is only recognised for greeting purposes and cultural activities. As such, most Vatsonga students do not contribute to the development of the language. The study therefore recommends that the institution language policy be revised and implemented accordingly to cater appropriate use of the SOVENGA languages. Keywords: Language Learning, Communication, Xitsonga, Indigenous African Languages, Language Policy, Planning, Implementation and Evaluation, Motivation, Attitude, SOVENGA

Mass communication through the print and the electronic media has not been spared by the post-Cold-War wind of change that is sweeping across Africa and the rest of the world. According to Wilcox (1974: 37), in 1974 over 70 percent of all the newspapers that were printed in Africa were government-owned; in the same year, almost all radio and T.V. stations were owned by government. In the changing socio-eonomic climate, however, a state monopoly of the mass media in many Sub- Saharan African countries is now a thing of the past (see for instance, Bourgault 1995). Where, for example, there used to be only one or two newspapers owned by the government or the ruling party, there now exists a plethora of privately owned competing newspapers and other publications; and where there used to be only one sycophantic radio and T. V. station owned by the government, there now exist several radio and T. V. stations, many of them privately-owned commercial broadcasters. The general philosophy behind the liberalization of the mass media is what has come to be called `the freedom of speech`. Citing the liberalization of the electronic media in Kenya, this paper argues that the liberalization of the media in many Sub-Saharan countries has not been matched by policies that encourage the entrenchment, spread and full utilization of African indigenous languages. It is further argued that the lack of media policy that favours African indigenous languages is likely to lead to negative consequences for the languages of Africa.

Thesis (M. A. (Translation Studies and Linguistics)) -- University of Limpopo, 2021 / This study provides the guidelines for the implementation of a mandatory African language course for first-year students at the University of Limpopo. The study utilised a phenomenological design to help participants to understand the need for a compulsory language course. Most importantly, the study aimed to understand the meanings that the participants ascribed to the importance of the course on campus at large. Data were collected using semi-structured interviews from 8 participants from the University of Limpopo. The sample size comprised of postgraduate students studying African language modules at the university, lecturers in African language modules, namely, Sepedi, lecturers in Tshivenḓa, and in Xitsonga. This study tested Language Management Theory (LMT) by Neustupny and Jernudd (1970). The study clarifies the meaning of section 4 (4.8) of the University of Limpopo’s language policy. Furthermore, this study brought the concept of ‘multilingualism’, as used in the setting of the University of Limpopo, into critical focus. This study recommended language module content needed at the University of Limpopo. Finally, the findings of the study show how students benefit from completing an African language course. The researcher suggested a compulsory African language module for all first-year students as a means to promote the use of African languages in academia. Furthermore, the study recommended that the language chosen by the students should not be their home tongue.

This study examines the mediation of multilingualism, localism and the nation in the Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation, henceforth, ZBC as the local content and multilingual broadcasting policies subsumed in the Broadcasting Services Act (2001) and the Broadcasting Services Amendment Act (2007) respectively translated into radio and television programming. This purpose is pursued by analysing the language choices and practices on the ZBC radio and television stations and programming. This study is informed by an eclectic approach within the critical theory tradition and therefore it disapproves the domination, marginalisation and exclusion of the indigenous African languages in the ZBC as a public sphere. Against this backdrop, the study envisages the promotion of linguistic diversity and indigenous African languages in the ZBC broadcasting. Data for this study was gathered from the ZBC employees, academics and the ZBC audience using questionnaires, interviews, and focus group discussions. As the local content and multilingual broadcasting policies translated into ZBC programming, this study detected a hierarchical organisation of the languages spoken in Zimbabwe on the radio and television stations where English is the most dominant language, while Shona and Ndebele dominate the minority languages, Shona dominates Ndebele and the supremacy of the Zezuru dialect in the Shona language is easily felt. This is a confirmation of the fragility of Zimbabwean linguistic nationalism in the ZBC which is convoluted by the ideological and political nature of the media, electronic colonisation, the political economy of broadcasting, the transformation of the ZBC public sphere by the market and state interests, the influence of the global media firms, and the relentless hegemony of the western countries in the world system. This study established that broadcasting in indigenous African languages is obligatory if the informative, communicative and symbolic functions of the public service broadcasting are to be achieved. However, this study contends that it is remarkably insufficient for linguists to minimally identify, lament and deplore the marginalisation and exclusion of the indigenous African languages in the ZBC without taking into account the economic, political and technological factors which contribute to the marginalisation and exclusion of these languages in the ZBC broadcasting in the context of the local content and multilingual broadcasting policies. Therefore, this study implores scholars in the discipline of language studies to ameliorate their sophistication by espousing a multidisciplinary approach to the study of language if they are to make meaningful arguments which can influence meaningful language policy outcomes instead of parroting. / African Languages / D. Litt. et Phil. (African Languages)

After many years of the oppressive apartheid government, the new democratic era came into being in 1994. Lot of policy changes came into being, including language policy. This new language policy of the post-apartheid era recognises eleven official languages which include the nine indigenous African languages which were previously recognised as regional languages in the different homelands. The present study investigates the progress of Tshivenda in terms of status and development since it was accorded the official status in South Africa. Literature investigating the status of Tshivenda is generally sparse. This study investigates the status of Tshivenda in South Africa to explore how minority languages which are also recognised as official languages are treated. In most multilingual countries, there are issues which affect the development of minority languages, but the South African situation is interesting in that some of the minority languages are recognised as official languages. This study is a comparative in nature. Firstly, the study compares the level of corpus planning and development in Tshivenda and other indigenous South African languages. Secondly, it compares how people use Tshivenda in a rural area of Lukalo Village where the language is not under pressure from other languages and in Cosmo City, an urban area in Gauteng where Tshivenda speakers come into contact with speakers of more dominant languages such as isiZulu and Sesotho. Language use in different domains like, media, education, government and the home is considered in order to establish how people use languages and the factors which influence their linguistic behaviours. The study also establishes the perceptions and attitudes of the speakers of Tshivenda as a minority and those of the speakers of other languages towards Tshivenda’s role in the different domains such as education and the media. This study was influenced by previous research (Alexander 1989, Webb 2002) which found out that during the apartheid period Tshivenda speakers used to disguise their identity by adopting dominant languages like isiZulu and Sesotho in Johannesburg. Accordingly, the present research wanted to establish how the language policy change in the democratic era has impacted on the confidence of Tshivenda speakers regarding themselves and their language. This study establishes that although Tshivenda is now an official language in post-apartheid South Africa, it still has features of underdevelopment and marginalization that are typically of unofficial minority languages. Translation, lexicographic and terminological work in this language still lags behind that of other indigenous South African languages and there is still a shortage of school textbooks and adult literature in this language. As a result, using the language in education, the media and other controlling domains is still quite challenging, although positive developments such as the teaching of the language at university level can be noted. The Tshivenda speakers generally have a positive attitude towards their language and seem prepared to learn and use it confidently as long its functional value is enhanced, which is currently not happening. As a result, some Tshivenda speakers still regard English as a more worthwhile language to learn at the expense of their language

This study examines the mediation of multilingualism, localism and the nation in the Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation, henceforth, ZBC as the local content and multilingual broadcasting policies subsumed in the Broadcasting Services Act (2001) and the Broadcasting Services Amendment Act (2007) respectively translated into radio and television programming. This purpose is pursued by analysing the language choices and practices on the ZBC radio and television stations and programming. This study is informed by an eclectic approach within the critical theory tradition and therefore it disapproves the domination, marginalisation and exclusion of the indigenous African languages in the ZBC as a public sphere. Against this backdrop, the study envisages the promotion of linguistic diversity and indigenous African languages in the ZBC broadcasting. Data for this study was gathered from the ZBC employees, academics and the ZBC audience using questionnaires, interviews, and focus group discussions. As the local content and multilingual broadcasting policies translated into ZBC programming, this study detected a hierarchical organisation of the languages spoken in Zimbabwe on the radio and television stations where English is the most dominant language, while Shona and Ndebele dominate the minority languages, Shona dominates Ndebele and the supremacy of the Zezuru dialect in the Shona language is easily felt. This is a confirmation of the fragility of Zimbabwean linguistic nationalism in the ZBC which is convoluted by the ideological and political nature of the media, electronic colonisation, the political economy of broadcasting, the transformation of the ZBC public sphere by the market and state interests, the influence of the global media firms, and the relentless hegemony of the western countries in the world system. This study established that broadcasting in indigenous African languages is obligatory if the informative, communicative and symbolic functions of the public service broadcasting are to be achieved. However, this study contends that it is remarkably insufficient for linguists to minimally identify, lament and deplore the marginalisation and exclusion of the indigenous African languages in the ZBC without taking into account the economic, political and technological factors which contribute to the marginalisation and exclusion of these languages in the ZBC broadcasting in the context of the local content and multilingual broadcasting policies. Therefore, this study implores scholars in the discipline of language studies to ameliorate their sophistication by espousing a multidisciplinary approach to the study of language if they are to make meaningful arguments which can influence meaningful language policy outcomes instead of parroting. / African Languages / D. Litt. et Phil. (African Languages)