Project Completion Report, OWRT Project No. A-043-ARIZ / Agreement No. 14-31-0001-4003 / Project Dates: July 1973 - June 1974 / Acknowledgment: The work upon which this report is based was supported in large part by funds provided by the United States Department of the Interior, Office of Water Research and Technology, as authorized under the Water Resources Research Act of 1964. / A growing demand for energy production in Arizona has increased the need for assembling and analyzing water resource information relative to energy production, especially electrical power generation. Unit water requirements for cooling of electrical plants, combined with projections of future electrical power demands in Arizona, provide a perspective on future quantities of water needed for cooling. Probabilistic estimates of storage reserves in Arizona groundwater basins indicate that some prospective plant sites can be supplied from groundwater for the 30 -year life of the plant, while others cannot. An estimate of comparative cost for supplying groundwater versus municipal wastewater for cooling electrical plants at selected sites in Arizona showed that use of wastewater would result in considerable savings over use of groundwater, at all sites considered.

A study in economic geography, this thesis attempts to determine the importance of water for process supply and effluent disposal in industrial location decisions. It is postulated that industry faces physical, institutional, and technologic-economic constraints when evaluating the water component in location problems. Each of these three constraints is analyzed and evaluated for British Columbia's pulp and paper industry, with a view to discovering its effect on the range of spatial choice enjoyed by firms. A number of general conclusions emerge from the investigation. Although a theoretic location proof is not offered, the study raises a number of arguments which indicate water has been over-emphasized in industrial location decisions, and that industry exhibits greater spatial mobility regarding water requirements than is contended in the geographical and technical literature. Of the three constraints, it appears that those of a technologic-economic nature impose the severest limitations on spatial choice; physical, the least. Institutional regulations are found to provide industry with incorrect signals for decision making — the suggestion is offered that effluent control programs based upon economic rather than biological criteria would remove this problem. The implications of the above conclusions for future geographic inquiry regarding water management and development is considered in the concluding section of the study. / Arts, Faculty of / Geography, Department of / Graduate

<p>Globalization and international competition put pressure on local communities to adjust to international standards of price and quality in production. Tirupur in India produces clothes for exports to the first world market. Because of the process of dyeing and bleaching of fabrics the river Noyyal that flows through the town and the surrounding ground water have become polluted. At the local level actors, like the state, business, NGOs and grassroots take action in different ways depending on their interests. The aim with this thesis is both to analyze the situation at the local level from the views and actions of different actors and how the local situation is influenced by globalization. Qualitative interviews have been made with representatives from these actors in Tirupur and its surroundings. This material has then been analyzed from the theory of Third World political ecology and globalization. The conclusions drawn from this study are that the situation in Tirupur cannot exclusively be explained at just one level. Local, national and global politics affect Tirupur. A politicized environment characterizes the local situation where actions against the pollution are not taken for the benefit of the powerful. People also lack empowerment to take action because of dependency on the industry. At the national level centralization is a problem in India because it results in difficulties for the civil society and people to reach elected representatives and influence from the local community. Another problem is the policy maker’s lack of understanding of the local situation. At last globalization limits the way to handle the pollution because of the global competition and the retreat of the state. But it also gives possibilities for the civil society to grow stronger internationally, perhaps with the possibility to create a change.</p>

Globalization and international competition put pressure on local communities to adjust to international standards of price and quality in production. Tirupur in India produces clothes for exports to the first world market. Because of the process of dyeing and bleaching of fabrics the river Noyyal that flows through the town and the surrounding ground water have become polluted. At the local level actors, like the state, business, NGOs and grassroots take action in different ways depending on their interests. The aim with this thesis is both to analyze the situation at the local level from the views and actions of different actors and how the local situation is influenced by globalization. Qualitative interviews have been made with representatives from these actors in Tirupur and its surroundings. This material has then been analyzed from the theory of Third World political ecology and globalization. The conclusions drawn from this study are that the situation in Tirupur cannot exclusively be explained at just one level. Local, national and global politics affect Tirupur. A politicized environment characterizes the local situation where actions against the pollution are not taken for the benefit of the powerful. People also lack empowerment to take action because of dependency on the industry. At the national level centralization is a problem in India because it results in difficulties for the civil society and people to reach elected representatives and influence from the local community. Another problem is the policy maker’s lack of understanding of the local situation. At last globalization limits the way to handle the pollution because of the global competition and the retreat of the state. But it also gives possibilities for the civil society to grow stronger internationally, perhaps with the possibility to create a change.

Industriell vattenrening är ett extremt viktigt område inom Miljöskyddsteknik då 60% av allt sötvatten inom Sverige används av industrier. Substanser som PFAS, aromatiska textilfärger, fenol och läkemedelsrester är extra utmanande då dessa kan vara gifta för biologisk rening. Syftet med denna rapport var att först redogöra några av de viktigaste avvägningarna som behöver göras när ett industriellt vattenreningsverk designas. I del två av arbetet har en kartläggning av teknologier som kan användas för att assistera eller ersätta biologisk rening. Det existerar flera olika typer av tekniker för att ersätta biologisk rening, men majoriteten av dessa konsumerar stora mängder värme eller elektricitet, vilket kan leda till stora rörliga kostnader. En trend inom industriell vattenrening är elektrifiering. Elektrifiering ger möjlighet att återvinna kemikalier, selektiv separation av joner, automatisk justering av pH via tekniker som elektrodialys och elektrokoagulering. Kall plasmaoxidation och kavitation kan även användas för destruktion av organiska ämnen. I takt med att förnyelsebar energi blir billigare att producera och om regeringen inför el-subventioner för industrin så kommer användbarheten av dessa tekniker att öka. Membranprocesser kan användas för att intensifiera processer som extraktion och indunstning. Med hjälp av membran kan separationshastigheten och energianvändningen minskas. Enzym kan användas för att skräddarsy rening för att bryta ner specifika ämnen vid låga tryck och temperaturer. Skumseparation är en mycket lovande process som kan användas för separation av ytaktiva ämnen som PFAS och har en mycket enkel design och låga energikostnader. / Industrial water treatment is an important field of study as industries in Sweden consumes over 60% of the available freshwater. Furthermore, only 60% of the industrial wastewater in Europe receive treatment before its discharged. Hard to oxidize compounds such as dyes, phenol, and PFAS are a major problem within the field as they often exhibit toxic or inhibiting qualities towards biological treatment methods. Therefore, the purpose of this thesis is twofold; firstly, some of the most important considerations when designing an industrial wastewater treatment plant is discussed to aid someone new to the field. Secondly, novel technologies that could be used to support or replace biological treatment methods are discussed. There exist several different novel technologies that can be used to treat organic pollutants. However, many of these techniques are very energy intensive, leading to high operational costs. A major trend within wastewater treatment is the electrification of treatment techniques. These enables the recycling of chemicals, selective removal of ions and automatic neutralization of pH by means of electrodialysis and electrocoagulation. They can also be used for destruction of organics using cavitation or cold plasma oxidation. The usefulness of these techniques is likely to increase in the future as the electrification of industry picks up speed and subsidies on industrial electricity prices are put in place. Membrane processes can intensify already existing unit operations such as evaporation and extraction. By employing a membrane, the speed of separation and the energy use can be lowered. Enzymatic treatment can be used to degrade several different compounds at low temperatures and pressures by tailoring the mix of enzymes to perfectly fit the wastewater in question. Foam separation is also interesting technology in the removal of surface-active chemicals and compounds due to its simplistic design and low operational cost. The use of this technology is likely to increase in the future if the legislation regarding persistent organics is tightened further.

Membrane filtration processes such as micro-, ultra- and nanofiltration as well as reverse osmosis are frequently used in industrial water treatment and waste water treatment. They use a high physical pressure difference as a driving force to press water through a semi-permeable membrane and produce purified water. For this reason, large amounts of energy are required. In contrast, forward osmosis is an innovative membrane filtration process that uses the naturally occurring osmotic pressure gradient between two liquids to generate the water flow through the semi-permeable membrane. In forward osmosis, one liquid with low osmotic pressure is concentrated (so-called Feed Solution) and a second liquid is diluted (so-called Draw Solution). If 'pure' water is to be obtained, a second treatment stage is necessary to regenerate the draw solution. Due to its natural driving force, forward osmosis offers the potential for energy-efficient treatment of water from various sources. This makes it a promising process for further concentration of aqueous product and waste water streams. For this reason, the application possibilities and the potential of forward osmosis in the industrial water sector were examined in more detail within the scope of this thesis. Within laboratory tests, forward osmosis treatment of different liquid streams of a dairy, an automobile production as well as a semiconductor production was examined. The core of the laboratory test set-up was a membrane test cell for flat sheet membranes with an effective membrane area of 48 cm². Special forward osmosis membranes from various manufacturers were used. The feed and draw solutions were circulated and increasingly concentrated or diluted during the course of the experiment. The permeate flow was determined by recording the change in mass. Conductivity measurements as well as analyses of the examined waters before and after the experiments allowed conclusions to be drawn about possible solute diffusion through the membrane. In addition to the laboratory tests, a model was developed and validated to simulate the experiments. Three partially adapted models from literature were used. The average permeate fluxes achieved in the laboratory experiments with real industrial water depended mainly on the osmotic pressure difference between feed and draw solution. The permeate fluxes were between 0.1 and 19.4 L/(m²⸱h) for the automotive industry, between 7.9 and 21.0 L/(m²⸱h) for the dairy industry and between 10.5 and 33.4 L/(m²⸱h) for the semiconductor industry. The reverse solute fluxes determined were between 37.7 and 21.3 g/(m²⸱h), between 4.1 and 12.2 g/(m²⸱h) and between 8.0 and 40.9 g/(m²⸱h). Within modelling, the tests with waters from automobile production were simulated. For the most part, the permeate fluxes could be well represented. The calculation of the reverse solute fluxes sometimes showed large deviations from the actual measurements. Standardized membrane performance tests were used to evaluate the development of permeate flux and to indicate fouling. Depending on the substances contained in the water, fouling occurred in the test series. In addition, deposits on the membrane surface were visible in some tests. However, the visible deposits did not always lead to a decrease in permeate flow. In an exemplary cleaning test, the membrane performance could be restored by rinsing with sodium hydroxide solution and hydrochloric acid. As a result of this thesis, different forward osmosis application scenarios in the examined industrial enterprises could be developed. For economic reasons, those scenarios in which both the feed and the draw solution are industrial waters and two liquids are treated simultaneously in one step are of particular interest. The use of an artificial Draw Solution and its treatment is unnecessary in this case. Such application scenarios could be derived for dairy and semiconductor production. No suitable Draw Solution could be identified in the investigated automobile production, which is why only applications with an artificial Draw Solution are conceivable here. In general, the critical points when using forward osmosis are the reverse solute flux through the membrane, the deterioration of the membrane performance due to fouling and the economic efficiency of the process. More in-depth investigations are required here. / Membranfiltrationsverfahren wie die Mikro-, Ultra- und Nanofiltration sowie die Umkehrosmose werden häufig in der industriellen Wasseraufbereitung sowie Abwasserbehandlung eingesetzt. Sie nutzen einen hohen physikalischen Druck-unterschied als Triebkraft, um Wasser durch eine semipermeable Membran zu pressen und gereinigtes Wasser zu erzeugen. Dafür sind große Energiemengen nötig. Im Gegensatz dazu ist die Vorwärtsosmose ein innovatives Membranfiltrationsverfahren, welches den natürlich vorkommenden osmotischen Druckgradienten zwischen zwei Flüssigkeiten nutzt, um einen Wasserfluss durch die semipermeable Membran zu erzeugen. Dabei wird eine Flüssigkeit mit niedrigem osmotischen Druck aufkonzentriert (sog. Feed Solution) und eine zweite Flüssigkeit verdünnt (sog. Draw Solution). Soll „reines“ Wasser gewonnen werden, ist eine zweite Aufbereitungsstufe zur Regeneration der Draw Solution notwendig. Durch die natürliche Triebkraft bietet die Vorwärtsosmose das Potenzial zur energieeffizienten Behandlung von Wässern verschiedener Herkunft. Damit ist sie ein vielversprechendes Verfahren zur weitergehenden Aufkonzentrierung von wässrigen Produkt- und Abwasserströmen. Aus diesem Grund wurden die Einsatzmöglichkeiten und das Potenzial der Vorwärtsosmose im industriewasser-wirtschaftlichen Bereich im Rahmen dieser Arbeit näher untersucht. Im Rahmen von Laborversuchen wurde die Aufbereitung von verschiedenen Flüssigkeitsströmen einer Molkerei, einer Automobilproduktion sowie einer Halbleiter-fertigung mittels Vorwärtsosmose untersucht. Kernstück der Laborversuchsanlage war eine Membrantestzelle für Flachmembranen mit einer wirksamen Membranfläche von 48 cm². Zum Einsatz kamen spezielle Vorwärtsosmosemembranen verschiedener Hersteller. Die genutzten Feed und Draw Solutions wurden im Kreislauf geführt und im Versuchsverlauf zunehmend aufkonzentriert bzw. verdünnt. Über die Erfassung der Masseänderung wurde der Permeatfluss bestimmt. Leitfähigkeitsmessungen sowie Analysen der untersuchten Wässer vor und nach den Versuchen ließen Schlussfolgerungen über eventuell auftretende Stoffdiffusion durch die Membran zu. Zusätzlich zu den Laborversuchen wurde ein Modell zur Simulation der Experimente erstellt und validiert. Dabei wurden drei, teilweise adaptierte, Modellansätze aus der Literatur verwendet. Die durchschnittlichen Permeatflüsse, welche bei den Laborversuchen mit reellen industriellen Wässern erreicht wurden, hingen vorrangig von der osmotischen Druckdifferenz zwischen Feed und Draw Solution ab. Die Permeatflüsse lagen für die Automobilindustrie zwischen 0,1 und 19,4 L/(m²⸱h), für die Molkerei zwischen 7,9 und 21,0 L/(m²⸱h) und für die Halbleiterindustrie zwischen 10,5 und 33,4 L/(m²⸱h). Die ermittelten Salzrückflüsse betrugen zwischen 37,7 und 21,3 g/(m²⸱h), zwischen 4,1 und 12,2 g/(m²⸱h) sowie zwischen 8,0 und 40,9 g/(m²⸱h). Im Rahmen der Modellierung wurden die Versuche mit Wässern der Automobilproduktion nachgebildet. Dabei konnten die Permeatflüsse größtenteils gut dargestellt werden. Die Berechnung der Salzrückflüsse wies gegenüber den tatsächlichen Messungen mitunter große Abweichungen auf. Durch standardisierte Membranleistungstests konnte die Entwicklung des Permeatflusses evaluiert und Fouling nachgewiesen werden. In Abhängigkeit der Wasserinhaltsstoffe trat Fouling in den Versuchsreihen auf. Zusätzlich waren bei einigen Versuchen Ablagerungen auf der Membranoberfläche sichtbar. Jedoch führten die sichtbaren Ablagerungen nicht in allen Fällen zu einem Rückgang des Permeatflusses. In einem exemplarisch durchgeführten Reinigungsversuch konnte die Membranleistung durch Spülprozesse mit Natronlauge und Salzsäure wiederhergestellt werden. Als Ergebnis der Arbeit konnten verschiedene Anwendungsszenarien für den Einsatz der Vorwärtsosmose in den untersuchten Industriebetrieben entwickelt werden. Hierbei sind aus wirtschaftlichen Gründen vor allem jene Szenarien interessant, bei denen sowohl die Feed als auch die Draw Solution industrielle Wässer sind und zwei Flüssigkeiten simultan in einem Schritt aufbereitet werden. Der Einsatz einer künstlichen Draw Solution und deren Aufbereitung ist in diesem Fall unnötig. Solche Anwendungsszenarien konnten für die Molkerei sowie die Halbleiterherstellung abgeleitet werden. In der untersuchten Automobilproduktion konnte keine geeignete Draw Solution identifiziert werden, weshalb hier lediglich Anwendungen mit einer künstlichen Draw Solution denkbar sind. Als kritische Punkte beim Einsatz der Vorwärtsosmose stellten sich der auftretende Salzrückfluss durch die Membran, die Verschlechterung der Membranleistung durch Fouling sowie die Wirtschaftlichkeit des Verfahrens heraus. Hier besteht weitergehender Forschungsbedarf.

From the Proceedings of the 1972 Meetings of the Arizona Section - American Water Resources Assn. and the Hydrology Section - Arizona Academy of Science - May 5-6, 1972, Prescott, Arizona / The concept of collective utility is applied to a case study of alternative water resource utilization by providing a basis for comparing alternative uses of resources from the viewpoint of aggregate welfare. The exchange of sewage effluent for groundwater used by irrigation farmers, and the exchange of sewage effluent for groundwater used by processing and milling miners in Tucson, Arizona, are given as examples. Reviewed are collective utility concepts, case problems, definitions of problems, formulation of the model, and marginal change of collective utility. The first case has a collective utility of $800,500-g, where g represents unquantifiable factors, such as the reduction in quality of living due to the odor if solid waste exchanges. The second case has a collective utility of $175,000. Since it is likely that g will be on the order of $1 million per year, the first exchange is preferable to the second.

From the Proceedings of the 1978 Meetings of the Arizona Section - American Water Resources Assn. and the Hydrology Section - Arizona Academy of Science - April 14-15, 1978, Flagstaff, Arizona / Wastewater reuse options for the Phoenix area include: agricultural irrigation, fish and wildlife enhancement, ground water recharge, industrial processing and coiling water, recreation, cooling water for power generation stations, and exchanging effluent for additional water supplies. Consideration is given to effluent reuse potential as a commodity to exchange for water suitable for domestic water supply. This exchange would result in yet additional reuses of the water as title to the effluent could be assured by contracts and agreements.

No description available.

The Lower Athabasca Water Management Framework limits water extractions by the oil sands industry near Fort McMurray, Alberta. To increase water-use efficiency and minimise the cost of water restrictions, several policy and technology options were developed and assessed using quantitative and qualitative methods. Selected options were the policies of water trade and pricing with refund, and the technologies of storage, and consolidated tailings and increased recycling. Options were designed based on year 2020 demand and assessed relative to prior allocation. Using linear programming and static optimisation, it is shown that an off-stream storage sized to avoid water restrictions, in combination with efficient water allocation (e.g. water trade), is most cost-effective, although provides no ongoing incentive to increase water-use efficiency. Only the policy options provide equal incentives across firms to increase efficiency. To achieve both objectives of increased water-use efficiency and minimised costs, a combined policy and technology approach is recommended. / Agricultural and Resource Economics