There are numerous causes of delays in productivity and efficiency on construction job sites, many of which stem from inadequate understandings of leadership characteristics and jobsite relationships. The focus of this study is to determine who construction personnel naturally seek advice from on a construction site when confronted with a situation that requires it. Additionally, this study seeks to establish a classification procedure for locating individuals towards whom those in need of leadership are naturally drawn. Four construction sites have been observed with the permission of each relative construction company. First the researcher attempted to collect observations of the frequency with which advice is sought. Each time advice was required on a construction site the researcher attempted to collect observations determining from whom the advice was asked and who asked the question. This was later revised into a one-on-one interview format. After substantial data for these variables were collected, characteristics of all participants were evaluated to form a system of classification for informal leadership. The characteristics that were examined include proximity, job title, experience, education, and age. It was expected that advice would be sought more often from those with various job titles who are older, have more experience, are close in proximity, and have higher education related to construction. This often appeared to be the case, except both higher titled formal leaders and informal leader had less formal education and more hands-on experience. Once the leadership structure of each jobsite had been evaluated, a comparison of the productivity of each of the companies associated with their respective jobsite was illustrated to determine whether informal or formal leadership structures were more effective in terms of the current status of product (determined by looking at the budget and schedule). Findings suggest informal leaders may be less efficient due to the lack of authority to make quick decisions. It was also determined that leaders are more effective when they are in a formal position of authority. The process developed assists in the discovery of where leadership truly lies on construction sites, allowing one to use this information to improve productivity and efficiency by maintaining relationships and promoting where necessary. / Master of Science

There are numerous causes of delays in productivity and efficiency on construction job sites, many of which stem from inadequate understandings of leadership characteristics and jobsite relationships. The focus of this study is to determine who construction personnel naturally seek advice from on a construction site when confronted with a situation that requires it. Additionally, this study seeks to establish a classification procedure for locating individuals towards whom those in need of leadership are naturally drawn. Four construction sites have been observed with the permission of each relative construction company. First the researcher attempted to collect observations of the frequency with which advice is sought. Each time advice was required on a construction site the researcher attempted to collect observations determining from whom the advice was asked and who asked the question. This was later revised into a one-on-one interview format. After substantial data for these variables were collected, characteristics of all participants were evaluated to form a system of classification for informal leadership. The characteristics that were examined include proximity, job title, experience, education, and age. It was expected that advice would be sought more often from those with various job titles who are older, have more experience, are close in proximity, and have higher education related to construction. This often appeared to be the case, except both higher titled formal leaders and informal leader had less formal education and more hands-on experience. Once the leadership structure of each jobsite had been evaluated, a comparison of the productivity of each of the companies associated with their respective jobsite was illustrated to determine whether informal or formal leadership structures were more effective in terms of the current status of product (determined by looking at the budget and schedule). Findings suggest informal leaders may be less efficient due to the lack of authority to make quick decisions. It was also determined that leaders are more effective when they are in a formal position of authority. The process developed assists in the discovery of where leadership truly lies on construction sites, allowing one to use this information to improve productivity and efficiency by maintaining relationships and promoting where necessary. / Master of Science

This study identified factors and variables of informal leadership in small groups with different gender composition (Men, women and mixed groups) and goal orientation (competition and cooperation). Behavioral dominance patterns (Information Sheet, pencil, decision sheet) and number of verbal interventions were compared to the main informal leadership factors identified in the groups. There were 24 participants (12 men and 12 women). Among the main variables and factors identified, there were some that had a higher possibility to appear than other. There was no significant difference of the factors and variables between women and men. Communication variables were more likely to be present in groups with the goal of cooperation as for the goal of competition. Guidance variables were more likely to be present in women groups than in men groups and mixed groups. There was a significant correlation between the factor’s Communication, Character and Guidance with the number of interventions and behavioral dominance patterns.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Educational Leadership / Jeffrey Zacharakis / In this study, the researcher explored the effects of a formal education and leadership development program (LDP), Command Team Spouse Development Program–Brigade Level (CTSDP-BDE), given to spouses of senior military service members (command team spouses) in preparation for brigade-level command team roles and environments. This study employed a nonexperimental, embedded, concurrent, mixed-methods approach to answer the overarching research question: “Can formal educational programs influence life effectiveness for adult participants, assuming informal leadership roles?” Findings from quantitative data indicated that the CTSDP-BDE course influences life effectiveness in participant personal and social abilities and beliefs and organizational skills as defined by scales in the Review of Personal Effectiveness and Locus of Control (ROPELOC) instrument for command team spouses who assume informal leadership roles. No change occurred for Active Involvement or participants’ measures of locus of control (internal and external) because of attending the program. Findings from qualitative data supported quantitative findings, and raise and provide deeper insight into the CTSDP-BDE and spousal education within the United States Army (U.S. Army). Additionally, the researcher demonstrated that formal educational programs could positively influence the informal leadership capabilities of adults. In this study, the researcher used research participants from the CTSDP-BDE, who were housed at the U.S. Army’s School for Command Preparation located in Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. Command team spouse participants (n=40) completed both presurveys and postsurveys over the course of a 7-month data collection period. Likewise, the researcher conducted follow-up, qualitative interviews (n=10) to further investigate the effects of the CTSDP-BDE program.

No description available.

Informal leaders can have similar effects on firm performance as formal leaders. Although informal leadership can play a critical role in organizational functioning, empirical research concerning this issue is scarce. I conceptualized informal leadership as a continuous variable, and tested the relationship between informal leadership and the following variables. First, this study examined how informal leaders can influence over other members, even though they do not possess formal power. Five indicators, i.e., performance, turnover intention, career satisfaction, work engagement, and optimism were selected to assess the qualities of informal leaders as role models. Second, this study advanced our understanding of how demographic factors (i.e., age, educational background, and work experience) contribute to shaping informal leadership. In addition, T-test was chosen to test whether informal leadership is more noteworthy in women than men. Lastly, this study compared the effects of informal and formal leaders on team effectiveness.

Führung gilt als zentraler Einflussfaktor auf den Erfolg von Organisationen und Arbeitsgruppen. Im Gegensatz zu formalen Führungskräften, welche sich meistens in einer hierarchisch höhergestellten Leitungsposition innerhalb der Organisation befinden und meist von der Organisation mit einem gewissen Maß an Macht oder Autorität ausgestattet sind, entwickelt sich die informelle Führung durch das Verhalten der Teammitglieder untereinander und manifestiert sich in der interpersonalen Wahrnehmung. Informelle Führungsstrukturen haben Auswirkungen auf die Leistung von und Zufriedenheit in Teams. Damit jedoch Organisationen und Arbeitsgruppen von informellen Führungsstrukturen profitieren können, sind wissenschaftliche Erkenntnisse zu den genauen Antezedenzien, Wirkmechanismen und Bedingungen ihrer Entwicklung unabdingbar. Trotz der umfangreichen empirischen Evidenz zu den Antezedenzien und Auswirkungen informeller Führung, sind grundlegende Fragen zu den interpersonellen und intrapersonalen Prozessen noch unbeantwortet. Diese Dissertation leistet einen Beitrag zur informellen Führungsforschung durch die Analyse dynamischer Zusammenhänge objektiven, sowie subjektiv wahrgenommenen Verhaltens und der Wahrnehmung von Führung in Arbeitsgruppen. Die Kapitel der Dissertation stützen sich dabei auf drei zentrale theoretische Ansätze: Evolutionäre Führungstheorie, Theorien zur geteilten Führung, sowie Informationsverarbeitungstheorie. Das erste Kernkapitel der Dissertation stellt eine Integration und Synthese relevanter theoretischer Ansätze zu Verhalten und Führung in Arbeitsgruppen dar. Das zweite Kernkapitel befasst der Rolle kognitiver Schemata in der individuellen Wahrnehmung der informellen Führungsstruktur und der eigenen interpersonalen Kommunikation.:List of Tables 4 List of Figures 5 Abstract 6 Zusammenfassung 9 1. Introduction 13 1.1. Relevance 13 1.2. Research Objectives 15 1.3. Dissertation Structure 17 2. Core Constructs and Conceptual Clarifications 18 3. Theoretical Framework 19 3.1. Evolutionary Leadership Theory 20 3.2. Shared Leadership Theory 22 3.3. Information Processing Theories 23 4. Methodological Framework 28 4.1. Social Network Analysis 28 4.2. Temporal Dynamics of Social Networks 31 5. Status Quo of Research 33 5.1. Antecedents of Informal Leadership in Teams 34 5.1.1. Antecedents of team-level informal leadership structures 34 5.1.2. Individual (ego)-level predictors of informal leadership perceptions 35 5.1.3. Dyadic-level antecedents of informal leadership perceptions 36 5.2. Observable Behavior and Informal Leadership Perceptions 37 5.3. Longitudinal Developments: Stability and Change of Informal Leadership Perceptions 39 6. Overview of the Research Program 41 7. Observing Leadership as Behavior– An Evolutionary Approach to Theory and Research on Team-Level Leadership Structures 44 7.1. Introduction 46 7.2. Shared Leadership in Teams: The Role of Interpersonal Behavior 48 7.3. Propositions 52 7.4. Leadership Assessment in Ethology 57 7.5. Leadership as Dyadic Ties: Implications for the Assessment of Behavior-based Networks 59 7.5.1. Behavior directions 60 7.5.2. Interpersonal behavior sequences 63 7.5.3. Compiling dyadic behavior to the group level 66 7.6. Discussion 67 7.6.1. Theoretical implications 67 7.6.2. Methodological implications 69 7.6.4. Practical implications 70 7.6.5. Limitations and outlook 71 8. Perceiving Leadership in Teams: The Effects of Cognitive Schemas and Perceived Communication 73 8.1. Introduction 75 8.2. Individual Perceptions of Leadership in Team 77 8.3. Individual Differences and Perceptions of Leadership in Teams 79 8.4. Leadership Structure Schemas 80 8.5. The Mediating Role of Perceived Communication 82 8.6. The Moderating Role of Affective Motivation to Lead 84 8.7. Overall Model 87 8.8. Method 88 8.8.1. Sample 89 8.8.2. Measures 89 8.9. Results 92 8.9.1. Descriptive analysis 92 8.9.2. Analytical approac 93 8.9.3. Hypotheses testing 95 8.10. Discussion 100 8.10.1. Implications for research 101 8.10.2. Practical implications 104 8.10.3. Limitations 105 9. Adapting Leadership Perceptions across Tasks: Micro-Origins of Informal Leadership Transitions 106 9.1. Introduction 108 9.2. Informal Leadership in Teams 110 9.3. Stability and Change of Informal Leadership Perceptions 113 9.4. How do Leadership Perceptions Change? Social Interactions as Micro-Processes 114 9.5. When do Leadership Perceptions Change? The Role Perceived Shifts in Competence Allocation 117 9.6. Methods 121 9.6.1. Overview and sample 121 9.6.2. Baseline assessment (T0) 122 9.6.3. Laboratory measurement (T1) 122 9.7. Results 127 9.7.1. Descriptive analyses 127 9.7.2 Analytical approach 129 9.7.3. Tests of hypotheses 131 9.8. Discussion 134 9.8.1. Implications for informal leadership research 135 9.8.2. Limitations 139 9.8.3. Practical implications 141 9.8.4. Conclusions 142 10. General Discussion 143 10.1. Summary of Conceptual Propositions 143 10.2. Summary of the Empirical Findings 143 10.3. Integration and Theoretical Implications 145 10.3.1. Observable behavior versus perceived behavior 145 10.3.2. The nature and content of cognitive schemas 147 10.3.3. When and why leadership perceptions change 150 10.4. Practical Implications 151 10.5. Limitations 154 10.6. Future Research 155 10.7. Conclusion 156 11. References 159 12. Acknowledgements 181 13. Curriculum Vitae 183 14. Declaration 187 / Leadership is a central factor of influence for team and organizational success. Whereas formal leadership features the occupation of management positions within the organizational hierarchy, often accompanied by a certain degree of power and authority, informal leadership develops naturally through team members’ behavior and manifests in their interpersonal perceptions. Informal leadership structures of teams have an impact on their performance and satisfaction. However, for organizations and teams to benefit from informal leadership, insights to the antecedents, mechanisms, and moderators for the development are indispensable. Although a considerable amount of research attends to the antecedents and effects of informal leadership, fundamental questions regarding the interpersonal and intrapersonal processes are yet unanswered. This dissertation contributes to informal leadership research by providing analyses of the dynamic associations between behavior, perceived behavior, and leadership perceptions in work groups. The chapters therefore refer to three central theoretical approaches: Evolutionary Leadership Theory, Shared Leadership Theory, and theory on information processing. The first main chapter of the dissertation provides an integration and synthesis of the relevant theoretical approaches to behavior and leadership in teams. The second main chapter attends to the relevance of cognitive schemas in the individual perception of both the informal leadership structure and the own interpersonal communication. The third main chapter puts an additional focus on the dynamics of leadership perceptions on the level of dyadic relations. The theoretical propositions and empirical findings of this dissertation provide important first steps towards the fine-grained and multi-level analysis of the intra- and interindividual processes of the development and change of informal leadership perceptions in work teams, and the integration of future and past evidence in the overarching context of the meaning of leadership structures for group performance.:List of Tables 4 List of Figures 5 Abstract 6 Zusammenfassung 9 1. Introduction 13 1.1. Relevance 13 1.2. Research Objectives 15 1.3. Dissertation Structure 17 2. Core Constructs and Conceptual Clarifications 18 3. Theoretical Framework 19 3.1. Evolutionary Leadership Theory 20 3.2. Shared Leadership Theory 22 3.3. Information Processing Theories 23 4. Methodological Framework 28 4.1. Social Network Analysis 28 4.2. Temporal Dynamics of Social Networks 31 5. Status Quo of Research 33 5.1. Antecedents of Informal Leadership in Teams 34 5.1.1. Antecedents of team-level informal leadership structures 34 5.1.2. Individual (ego)-level predictors of informal leadership perceptions 35 5.1.3. Dyadic-level antecedents of informal leadership perceptions 36 5.2. Observable Behavior and Informal Leadership Perceptions 37 5.3. Longitudinal Developments: Stability and Change of Informal Leadership Perceptions 39 6. Overview of the Research Program 41 7. Observing Leadership as Behavior– An Evolutionary Approach to Theory and Research on Team-Level Leadership Structures 44 7.1. Introduction 46 7.2. Shared Leadership in Teams: The Role of Interpersonal Behavior 48 7.3. Propositions 52 7.4. Leadership Assessment in Ethology 57 7.5. Leadership as Dyadic Ties: Implications for the Assessment of Behavior-based Networks 59 7.5.1. Behavior directions 60 7.5.2. Interpersonal behavior sequences 63 7.5.3. Compiling dyadic behavior to the group level 66 7.6. Discussion 67 7.6.1. Theoretical implications 67 7.6.2. Methodological implications 69 7.6.4. Practical implications 70 7.6.5. Limitations and outlook 71 8. Perceiving Leadership in Teams: The Effects of Cognitive Schemas and Perceived Communication 73 8.1. Introduction 75 8.2. Individual Perceptions of Leadership in Team 77 8.3. Individual Differences and Perceptions of Leadership in Teams 79 8.4. Leadership Structure Schemas 80 8.5. The Mediating Role of Perceived Communication 82 8.6. The Moderating Role of Affective Motivation to Lead 84 8.7. Overall Model 87 8.8. Method 88 8.8.1. Sample 89 8.8.2. Measures 89 8.9. Results 92 8.9.1. Descriptive analysis 92 8.9.2. Analytical approac 93 8.9.3. Hypotheses testing 95 8.10. Discussion 100 8.10.1. Implications for research 101 8.10.2. Practical implications 104 8.10.3. Limitations 105 9. Adapting Leadership Perceptions across Tasks: Micro-Origins of Informal Leadership Transitions 106 9.1. Introduction 108 9.2. Informal Leadership in Teams 110 9.3. Stability and Change of Informal Leadership Perceptions 113 9.4. How do Leadership Perceptions Change? Social Interactions as Micro-Processes 114 9.5. When do Leadership Perceptions Change? The Role Perceived Shifts in Competence Allocation 117 9.6. Methods 121 9.6.1. Overview and sample 121 9.6.2. Baseline assessment (T0) 122 9.6.3. Laboratory measurement (T1) 122 9.7. Results 127 9.7.1. Descriptive analyses 127 9.7.2 Analytical approach 129 9.7.3. Tests of hypotheses 131 9.8. Discussion 134 9.8.1. Implications for informal leadership research 135 9.8.2. Limitations 139 9.8.3. Practical implications 141 9.8.4. Conclusions 142 10. General Discussion 143 10.1. Summary of Conceptual Propositions 143 10.2. Summary of the Empirical Findings 143 10.3. Integration and Theoretical Implications 145 10.3.1. Observable behavior versus perceived behavior 145 10.3.2. The nature and content of cognitive schemas 147 10.3.3. When and why leadership perceptions change 150 10.4. Practical Implications 151 10.5. Limitations 154 10.6. Future Research 155 10.7. Conclusion 156 11. References 159 12. Acknowledgements 181 13. Curriculum Vitae 183 14. Declaration 187

Bakgrund: Organisationer förändras och övergår mer till teambaserad struktur samt utvecklar med självstyrande team. Självstyrande team har visat öka effektivitet och produktivitet i organisationerna. Den organisationsstruktur och -kultur som teamen besitter anses unik med strävan efter auktoritet i det vardagliga arbetet samt beslutsfattandet. Det är utmanande med självstyrande team som ska bestå av individer som ska förlita sig på varandra med ett gemensamt ansvarstagande och arbeta mot ett gemensamt mål. Vid första tanke är självstyrande team uppbyggda med grund att vara ledarlösa. Syfte: Syftet med studien är att undersöka och öka förståelsen för vardagligt beslutsfattande inom självstyrande team. Det som avses undersökas är förståelsen kring beslutsfattandets tillvägagångssätt samt teammedlemmars befogenhet för det vardagliga beslutsfattandet inom teamen. Metod: Metoden som har använts i denna studie är en kvalitativ forskningsmetod med abduktiv ansats. Det empiriska material som samlats in till studien bygger på sju semistrukturerade intervjuer samt en mängd sekundärdata från det valda tillverkningsföretaget. Det insamlade empiriska materialet har för avsikt med hjälp av den teoretiska referensramen, att analysera likheter och skillnader mellan teamen samt tidigare forskning. Slutsats: Studien bekräftar tidigare forskning om att självstyrande team ska styra över sitt eget ansvarstagande samt vardagliga beslutsfattande. Studien illustrerar dock att definitionen av självstyrande team är begränsad och behovet av stöd från ledarroller behövs. / Background: Organizations change and transition more to team-based structure and develop with autonomous teams. Autonomous teams have shown increased efficiency and productivity in organizations. The organizational structure and culture that the teams possess is considered unique with the pursuit of authority in everyday work and decision-making. It is challenging with autonomous teams that will consist of individuals who rely on each other with a shared responsibility and work towards a common goal. At first thought, autonomous teams are built on the basis of being leaderless. Purpose: The purpose of the study is to investigate and increase the understanding of everyday decision-making within autonomous teams. What is meant to be investigated is the understanding of the approach of decision-making as well as the power of team members for the day-to-day work of the teams. Method: The method used in this study is a qualitative research method with an abductive approach. The empirical material collected for the study is based on seven semi-structured interviews as well as a variety of secondary data from the selected manufacturing company. The collected empirical material intends to use the theoretical frame of reference to analyze similarities and differences between the teams and previous research. Conclusion: The study confirms previous research that autonomous teams should control their own responsibility and everyday decision-making. The study illustrates that the definition of autonomous teams is limited and the need for support from leadership roles is needed.