This study focuses on commercial mushroom production, a relatively new economic activity in Swaziland that seeks to assist rural-based small-scale farmers to diversify and improve their economic independence and livelihoods. The mushroom programme is in line with the National Development Strategy, which, among its major objectives, aims to address povertyrelated challenges through the promotion of non-conventional high-value agricultural commodities that have not been explored by local farmers despite having a relatively high consumer demand in local and international markets. In attempting to provide an impetus to the mushroom industry, the Swaziland government currently offers free training in mushroom production, extension services, high quality spawn at a very nominal fee, and free substrate bags. Considering the geographical suitability and the magnitude of investment made towards the mushroom development programme, there is a need to understand why many farmers are not participating in the industry, and why Swaziland still imports more than 95 percent of locally consumed cultivated mushrooms. There has also been no research so far on the challenges and opportunities in producing, value adding, and marketing of mushrooms in Swaziland. This study was, therefore, an attempt to address these knowledge gaps. It also provided an opportunity to draw relevant policy and management implications to inform future strategies in the industry. The specific objectives of the study were to: (i) identify and examine the factors that influence households’ decisions to participate in mushroom production; (ii) study the underlying mushroom production and market access constraints; (iii) examine the effects of transaction cost factors that influence mushroom producers’ market channel choice decisions and the quantity of mushrooms sold in selected channels; and (iv) study the effects of organisational form on producers’ participation in collective responsibilities. Using cross-sectional data gathered from mushroom producers and non-producers, the results of the Two-Stage Conditional Maximum Likelihood and Two-Stage Probit Least Squares estimation methods revealed that farmers’ decisions to participate in the mushroom enterprise are mainly influenced by institutional factors. Farmers who have undergone training in basic oyster mushroom production, are located in close proximity to input and output markets, and have positive perceptions towards mushrooms, are likely to participate in the mushroom industry. The development of positive perceptions towards mushrooms is predominantly influenced by the knowledge gained on their nutritional and therapeutical properties. The value chain approach was used to identify the underlying factors constraining mushroom production and producers’ participation in mainstream markets. Among the important findings, the study showed that producers’ plans to expand production capacities are hampered by the difficulty to access key inputs and services, which are centralised and fully controlled by the government. Generally, local farmers produce below capacity in relatively small low-cost structures, which are also not well equipped. As a result, farmers apply very primitive management methods that eventually affect their productivity. These constraints are partly responsible for the extremely low locally produced volumes and inconsistent market supply, prompting local mushroom traders to rely on imports. Other constraints relate to the lack of diversification as farmers currently produce only the oyster mushroom, yet consumers are mostly interested in the button mushroom, which is favoured for its appearance and taste. Currently, no cultivated mushrooms are exported from Swaziland and producers have not yet engaged in any form of mushroom processing. Instead, from what they harvest, it was found that about six to 10 percent is consumed at household level and the remainder sold through four channels identified as: (i) the farm gate; (ii) retail market (supermarkets); (iii) middlemen; and (iv) food services industry (restaurants/hotels). Among the four channels, the retail market and farm gate were, respectively, identified as the most preferred. Between the two, the retail market offers a comparatively higher producer price and a relatively more dependable market. Cragg’s regression results revealed that producers who are likely to supply the retail market are those who manage a relatively large number of spawn impregnated bags, have a high labour endowment, own cold storage facilities, and are affiliated to mushroom producing groups. However, the difficulty in accessing market information and lack of bargaining power significantly constrains other producers’ plans to supply the retail market; hence, they end up selling through less remunerative channels, such as the farm gate. Producers’ decisions on the quantity of mushrooms supplied through the retail market are significantly affected by the difficulty in accessing transport and uncertainty about meeting the retailers’ quality requirements. Over 90 percent of mushroom producers in Swaziland currently participate in the industry through farmer groups. These groups are predominantly organised in two forms, depicted as model A and B, respectively. In model A, besides establishing their own by-laws, members produce mushrooms in one growing house where they share the costs and benefits of all preproduction, production and marketing activities. In model B, members also establish their own by-laws and share all pre-production activities. However, instead of producing under one roof, each member manages his/her own growing house and members are at liberty to make their own marketing arrangements independently. The results of the Propensity Score Matching method indicated that producers affiliated to model B groups have significantly higher levels of cooperation, which is evidenced in making joint decisions and performing shared manual activities. Participation in such groups also improves producers’ knowledge of the enterprise, and reduces the likelihood of internal free-riding. The overall results of the study point to the need to strengthen farmer training in mushroom production and value-addition. In attempting to improve producers’ access to key inputs and services, it is recommended that the government should relinquish its position (to the private sector) as the only provider of these services, allowing public institutions to assume a monitoring role. Producers’ competitiveness and sustainable participation in the mushroom value chain can be enhanced by institutionalising and strengthening collective action, which can possibly enable them to achieve economies of scale benefits in the input and product markets, and improve their bargaining position. As indicated in the empirical chapters, market availability for mushrooms is not a challenge in Swaziland. However, the lack of a market information system, expert assistance in agribusiness management, poor value chain governance, and lack of vertical coordination, predispose producers to high marketing and transaction costs such that they end up selling through less remunerative marketing channels.

By probing Thorstein B. Veblen&rsquo / s (1857-1929) and Joseph A. Schumpeter&rsquo / s (1883-1950) views on technology, this thesis aims at displaying an institutional economic approach to technology. Most of the contemporary studies on technological change are under the dominance of neoclassical economics. Because of their inadequacies in revealing the complex structure of technological phenomena due to their adherence to mechanistic and deterministic postulations of orthodox economic theory, an institutional approach to technology has become a must. Therefore, today, the fundamental ideas of Veblen and Schumpeter concerning technology are used heavily to constitute an alternative approach by evolutionary and institutionalist economists in their technical, philosophical, sociological and methodological studies. In this sense, this thesis, based upon a comparative analysis of Veblen and Schumpeter, is engaged with presenting an alternative conceptual framework for science and technology policy studies.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of California, San Diego, 1998. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 236-248).

Embora constitua um elemento fundamental da Microeconomia, o estudo do comportamento empresarial foi, por muito tempo, negligenciado pela abordagem ortodoxa em virtude de sua opção metodológica pelo atomismo analítico, pela hipótese de racionalidade substantiva e pelo foco nas trocas, em detrimento da produção. Tentativas posteriores de aprimoramento da teoria convencional, compromissadas, contudo, com a preservação desse instrumental analítico, conduziram o estudo das firmas a um inevitável impasse, o que por sua vez possibilitou a emergência de alternativas teóricas de natureza institucionalista, baseada nos conceitos de custos de transação e competências. A escola institucionalista logrou posteriormente desenvolver-se de modo a ampliar consideravelmente seu escopo e diversidade teórica, culminando afinal na predominância de duas grandes correntes de pensamento dentro do institucionalismo econômico, que competem pela primazia da explicação do comportamento organizacional: as abordagens contratualista e evolucionária. Através da análise dos avanços e limitações de cada uma dessas diferentes escolas, demonstraremos neste trabalho a viabilidade de um diálogo em prol da construção de uma teoria híbrida que combine e aperfeiçoe as principais contribuições institucionalistas à compreensão do fenômeno empresarial. / Despite being a fundamental element of the Microeconomics, the study of business behavior was, for a long time, neglected by orthodoxy due to its methodological preference for atomist analysis, substantive rationality and focus on exchange, instead of production. Further attempts to improve the conventional theory, without abandoning the compromise in maintaining these analytical tools, have elsewhere failed, leading to the emergence of theoretical alternatives based on the institutionalist concepts of transaction costs and competences. Furthermore, the institutionalist approach was able to develop itself in the way of enlarging its scope and theoretical diversity, until the present state in which two great streams compete for supremacy in the institutionalist theory of the firm: the transaction costs economics and the evolutionary economics. By verifying the advances and limits of each one of these approaches, we’ll demonstrate the viability of a dialogue in the way of building a hybrid theory, which would combine the most important institutional contributions to the comprehension of the organizations.

A reutilização de resíduos orgânicos para alimentação animal é uma prática comum desde os tempos mais longínquos. Com a identificação das perdas e desperdícios de alimento como uma estratégia chave diante da crescente preocupação em relação à Segurança Alimentar Global, este mecanismo de reaproveitamento do resíduo gerado é posto como uma importante alternativa. No município de Porto Alegre (RS/ Brasil) é conduzido o Projeto de Reaproveitamento de Resíduos Orgânicos de Restaurante via Suinocultura, no qual o departamento de limpeza municipal intermedeia a transferência de resíduos alimentares para suinocultores da região (vinculados ao grupo Associação de Suinocultores da Zona Sul de Porto Alegre), produzindo produtos cárneos de origem e qualidade controladas. Para avaliar como está disposta a estrutura de governança desta cadeia produtiva, como ela se relaciona com o ambiente institucional que a delimita e se esta estrutura afeta a forma como o projeto é conduzido, foram utilizados conceitos da Nova Economia Institucional e da Economia de Custos de Transação. Foi possível identificar que o alto nível de especificidade de ativos e de incertezas nas transações são fontes significantes de custos de transações. Além disso, os estabelecimentos geradores de resíduo e os produtores agem de forma oportunista ao participar do Projeto e investimentos específicos demandados não são realizados devido à incerteza do ambiente. Em decorrência destes aspectos, emergem falhas organizacionais, identificadas nesta pesquisa como entraves na condução do projeto. Os principais entraves identificados para a condução do Projeto foram "alta de Licenciamento Ambiental", "Tratamento do Resíduo" e "Características da Associação", estando estes diretamente vinculados ao ambiente institucional. / The reuse of organic waste as animal diet is a common practice since the most ancient times. The identification of losses and food waste became a key strategy in the face of growing concern about the Global Food Security, and this mechanism that recycle of the waste generated is na important alternative. In Porto Alegre (RS State / Brazil) is leading the “Projeto de Reutilização de Resíduos Orgânicos de Restaurante via Suinocultura”, in which the municipal cleaning department mediates the transfer of food waste to pig farmers in the region (all of them linked to a Producers Association) to produce meat products with origin and quality controlled. To evaluate how is addressed the governance structure of this production chain, how is its relationship with the Institutional Environment and is this structure affects how the project is lead, were used concepts of the New Institutional Economics and the Economics of Transaction Costs. We observed that the high level of asset specificity and uncertainty in the transactions are significant sources of transaction costs. In addition, the waste generators establishments and producers act opportunistically to participate in the project and some demanded specific investments are not made due to environmental uncertainty. The main barriers identified (called in this study as organizational failures) for the well maintenance of the Project were ―Lack of Environmental Licensing‖, ―Treatment of Waste‖ and ―the Association Features‖, and these are directly linked to the institutional environment.

Embora constitua um elemento fundamental da Microeconomia, o estudo do comportamento empresarial foi, por muito tempo, negligenciado pela abordagem ortodoxa em virtude de sua opção metodológica pelo atomismo analítico, pela hipótese de racionalidade substantiva e pelo foco nas trocas, em detrimento da produção. Tentativas posteriores de aprimoramento da teoria convencional, compromissadas, contudo, com a preservação desse instrumental analítico, conduziram o estudo das firmas a um inevitável impasse, o que por sua vez possibilitou a emergência de alternativas teóricas de natureza institucionalista, baseada nos conceitos de custos de transação e competências. A escola institucionalista logrou posteriormente desenvolver-se de modo a ampliar consideravelmente seu escopo e diversidade teórica, culminando afinal na predominância de duas grandes correntes de pensamento dentro do institucionalismo econômico, que competem pela primazia da explicação do comportamento organizacional: as abordagens contratualista e evolucionária. Através da análise dos avanços e limitações de cada uma dessas diferentes escolas, demonstraremos neste trabalho a viabilidade de um diálogo em prol da construção de uma teoria híbrida que combine e aperfeiçoe as principais contribuições institucionalistas à compreensão do fenômeno empresarial. / Despite being a fundamental element of the Microeconomics, the study of business behavior was, for a long time, neglected by orthodoxy due to its methodological preference for atomist analysis, substantive rationality and focus on exchange, instead of production. Further attempts to improve the conventional theory, without abandoning the compromise in maintaining these analytical tools, have elsewhere failed, leading to the emergence of theoretical alternatives based on the institutionalist concepts of transaction costs and competences. Furthermore, the institutionalist approach was able to develop itself in the way of enlarging its scope and theoretical diversity, until the present state in which two great streams compete for supremacy in the institutionalist theory of the firm: the transaction costs economics and the evolutionary economics. By verifying the advances and limits of each one of these approaches, we’ll demonstrate the viability of a dialogue in the way of building a hybrid theory, which would combine the most important institutional contributions to the comprehension of the organizations.

L'objectif de ce travail est d'analyser théorique, expérimentale et empiriquement des rationalités des actions collectives au sein de microsystèmes économiques associatifs, particulièrement l'étude de las ferias ou les marchés libres au Chili et les marchés agro-écologiques dans l'Etat Fédéral du Paraná, Brésil. Notre point de départ a été l'analyse systémique, parce que ces phénomènes économiques et sociaux contiennent une grande complexité. D'abord parce qu'il s'agit d'un univers qui contient des expériences particulières et que passer de l'expérience locale vers le global ou théorique n'est pas évident. Et, ensuite, parce que ces expériences doivent être comprises à l'intérieur de l'ensemble systémique dans lequel elles s'insèrent, qui ne peut pas se réduire à un simple agrégat d'individus ou d'institutions. Par conséquent, au niveau de la recherche, cela implique un regard bifocal qui redessine l'univers total au fur et à mesure que l'on entre dans les particularités. Les travaux de terrain ont été réalisés dans la région de Paraná, Brésil, ainsi que dans celle de Valparaíso et dans la région métropolitaine du Chili, mais aussi on a un petit échantillon d'agriculteurs et organisations au Chili pour analyser des hypothèses du capital social, comportement coopératifs, et d'administration de recours communs. En considération que l'action collective implique le développement de un contexte coopérative, qu'involucre des processus de construction de “confiance” dans un monde où l'information n'est pas disponible et/ou elle est coûteuse, surtout quand il s'agit de collectifs qui travaillent dans des réseaux très vastes du point de vue territorial, comme c'est le cas des deux réseaux que nous présenterons dans cette recherche. Alors, la foi en l'autre et le pari sur son honnêteté deviennent importants. En effet, l'évidence signale que dans les marchés collectifs, toujours il y a une tension entre l'individualisme et la génération de confiance et coopération. A partir de cela, nous avons formulé cette hypothèse : la probabilité de survivre davantage dans le temps qui pour nous, est un indicateur de réussite, est en rapport avec les réseaux de voisinage et d'institutionnalité et avec les types de réseaux. Si ces réseaux apparaissaient dans une ambiance qui stimule la coopération, la probabilité de durer augmente. Pour faire cette analyse nous utilisons l'encadrement théorique de l'économie institutionnel, spécifiquement sur l'influence de Commons, Veblen et Ostrom, et à partir des méthodologies identifiées de « deuxième génération » , en analysant des comportements économiques avec les outils de la théorie des jeux et en incorporant un nouvel outil qui est l'analyse des réseaux sociaux, comme proposition pour modeler une rationalité collective dans un contexte institutionnel. Puis, nous reviendrons aux territoires, en reprenant les outils méthodologiques qualitatifs identifiés comme dépêche de la « première génération », en cherchant à approfondir les concepts de coopération, de confiance et les mécanismes d'auto-organisation, à partir de la signification depuis l'expérience des collectivités. Pour réaliser finalement une proposition méthodologique qui permet de faire dialoguer tant les dynamiques institutionnelles depuis sa profondeur, comme aussi la scène expérimentale, en incorporant l'analyse des réseaux sociaux pour la construction des modèles analytiques. En cherchant des méthodes d'analyses pour les différentes rationalités des actions collectives au sein de microsystèmes économiques associatifs. Une réflexion sur les méthodes d'analyses de terrain et d'interactions entre travail de terrain et résultats obtenus pour la réflexion dans la science économique. / The aim of this study is to analyze the theoretical, experimental and empirical rationalities underlying collective actions within associative economic microsystems. In particular, in the study of fairs and free markets in Chile and of agro-ecological markets in the Federal State of Paraná, Brazil. Due to the high complexity as it rises from these economic and social phenomena, our starting point has been the systemic analysis. It is about a universe with particular experiences, in which inferences from local level -the experiences- to global level -the theory- are not obvious. Furthermore, these experiences must be understood from the systemic set, which in its turn, cannot be reduced to the mere aggregation of individuals and institutions. Thus, at a research level, it implies the use of a bifocal gaze, with which the whole universe is reconfigured as someone enters into the details of its particularities. The field works were conducted in Valparaíso and Metropolitan Regions of Chile and in regions of Paraná Federal State of Brazil. In addition, a small sample of farmers and organizations in Chile was also considered to test hypothesis on social capital, cooperative behavior and shared resources management. The evidence suggests that sustainable collective actions require of a cooperative context which, at the time, involves processes to build up “confidence relations”. On another hand, information in that world is unavailable, scarce and/or costly. In addition, collective communities -as is the case analyzed in this Thesis- may be working over extended territorial networks. In these cases, the declaration, construction and commitment to the honesty of the other and to the whole become very relevant. Thus the evidence shows that in collective markets, there is always a tension between individualism and necessarily generation of trust and cooperation. Therefore the following hypothesis is stated: the probability of surviving during the time -which can be considered an indicator of success-, was related to neighborhood and the kind of institutional networks. If these networks are in an environment that fosters cooperation, the probability of survival is increased. Institutional economics are used as a theoretical framework for the analysis. More specifically, those influenced by Commons, Veblen and Ostrom. In addition, methodologies identified as those of "second generation" are also used. These methodologies allow the analysis of economic behavior using the tools of game theory. Finally, we propose to incorporate social network analysis as a way to model collective rationality in an institutional context. Then we shall turn over to the territories where “first generation” methodological tools are applied to look further on the concept of cooperation, trust and self-organizing mechanisms from the significance of the acquired collective experiences. Finally, efforts are made to elaborate a methodological proposal that allows enforcing dialogs about institutional dynamics from its depth, as well as about the experimental stage, and to incorporate social network analysis, in order to build up analytical models. In the search of analytical methods for the different rationalities of collective action within associative economic microsystems a reflection is required on the methods of field analysis and on the interactions between fieldworks and results obtained for theoretical reflection in economics.

A reutilização de resíduos orgânicos para alimentação animal é uma prática comum desde os tempos mais longínquos. Com a identificação das perdas e desperdícios de alimento como uma estratégia chave diante da crescente preocupação em relação à Segurança Alimentar Global, este mecanismo de reaproveitamento do resíduo gerado é posto como uma importante alternativa. No município de Porto Alegre (RS/ Brasil) é conduzido o Projeto de Reaproveitamento de Resíduos Orgânicos de Restaurante via Suinocultura, no qual o departamento de limpeza municipal intermedeia a transferência de resíduos alimentares para suinocultores da região (vinculados ao grupo Associação de Suinocultores da Zona Sul de Porto Alegre), produzindo produtos cárneos de origem e qualidade controladas. Para avaliar como está disposta a estrutura de governança desta cadeia produtiva, como ela se relaciona com o ambiente institucional que a delimita e se esta estrutura afeta a forma como o projeto é conduzido, foram utilizados conceitos da Nova Economia Institucional e da Economia de Custos de Transação. Foi possível identificar que o alto nível de especificidade de ativos e de incertezas nas transações são fontes significantes de custos de transações. Além disso, os estabelecimentos geradores de resíduo e os produtores agem de forma oportunista ao participar do Projeto e investimentos específicos demandados não são realizados devido à incerteza do ambiente. Em decorrência destes aspectos, emergem falhas organizacionais, identificadas nesta pesquisa como entraves na condução do projeto. Os principais entraves identificados para a condução do Projeto foram "alta de Licenciamento Ambiental", "Tratamento do Resíduo" e "Características da Associação", estando estes diretamente vinculados ao ambiente institucional. / The reuse of organic waste as animal diet is a common practice since the most ancient times. The identification of losses and food waste became a key strategy in the face of growing concern about the Global Food Security, and this mechanism that recycle of the waste generated is na important alternative. In Porto Alegre (RS State / Brazil) is leading the “Projeto de Reutilização de Resíduos Orgânicos de Restaurante via Suinocultura”, in which the municipal cleaning department mediates the transfer of food waste to pig farmers in the region (all of them linked to a Producers Association) to produce meat products with origin and quality controlled. To evaluate how is addressed the governance structure of this production chain, how is its relationship with the Institutional Environment and is this structure affects how the project is lead, were used concepts of the New Institutional Economics and the Economics of Transaction Costs. We observed that the high level of asset specificity and uncertainty in the transactions are significant sources of transaction costs. In addition, the waste generators establishments and producers act opportunistically to participate in the project and some demanded specific investments are not made due to environmental uncertainty. The main barriers identified (called in this study as organizational failures) for the well maintenance of the Project were ―Lack of Environmental Licensing‖, ―Treatment of Waste‖ and ―the Association Features‖, and these are directly linked to the institutional environment.

O tema referente ao aumento das exportações vem ganhando importância para o comércio exterior brasileiro. Desde 2003 as exportações brasileiras têm apresentado resultados recordes e o saldo da balança comercial acompanha este resultado. Entretanto, as exportações brasileiras tornam-se inexpressivas se comparadas às exportações que ocorrem no mundo, pois elas representam somente pouco mais de 1% das exportações mundiais. Um dos fatores responsáveis por este resultado seria a incidência de barreiras comerciais aos produtos brasileiros exportados, uma vez que estas barreiras aumentam os custos das transações envolvidos nos processos de exportações e são capazes de torná-los inviáveis. Assim, este trabalho possui como objetivo principal utilizar a abordagem da nova economia institucional (NEI) para analisar o desempenho de alguns dos principais produtos da pauta exportadora brasileira considerando a incidência de barreiras comerciais européias sobre eles. Para atingir este objetivo, faz-se necessário levantar as barreiras comerciais impostas pela União Européia, principal parceiro comercial do Brasil, aos produtos brasileiros e mostrar quais os possíveis reflexos que estas barreiras representam ao comportamento do comércio exterior brasileiro. / The subject that refers to the increase of the exports has been becoming an important issue to the brazilian international business. The brazilian exports have been showing an excellent performance since 2003 and the balance of trade imitates this result. However, the brazilian exports become insignificant when are compared to all exports that occur in the world, because they represent only around 1% of the global exports. One of the factors responsible for this result is the incidence of international trade barriers on brazilian exports, because these barriers increase the transaction costs involved in the export process and can discourage business. Therefore, the main objective of this research is to use the new institutional economics approach to analyze the performance of some of the most important products exported by Brazil considering the incidence of european trade barriers on them. To reach this aim, it is needed to show the trade barriers imposed by the European Union on brazilian exports and point the possible reflexes that these barriers represent to the brazilian international business. European Union represents the most important business partner of Brazil.

Este trabalho investiga possíveis explicações para o atraso na expansão da educação primária no Brasil, apesar das notáveis taxas de crescimento via ndustrialização por substituição de importações entre os anos de 1930 e 1964. O trabalho trata especificamente o papel da distribuição de poder político e de descentralização na expansão da taxa de matrículas na educação primária. Os dados demonstram que durante o Estado Novo, período ditatorial sob o comando de Vargas, houve queda na taxa de matrícula do primário. A volta da democracia em 1946 foi benéfica para o ensino primário. Entretanto, ao contrário do que teria ocorrido em muitos países, as evidências parecem apontar que o caso brasileiro se assemelhou mais ao indiano, em um contexto de democracia elitista, em que a expansão do sufrágio exerceu pouco efeito na expansão da educação, com conseqüências importantes para o crescimento econômico de longo prazo. Além da falta de voz política da população ter ensejado poucas melhoras na educação primária brasileira, a falta de fontes de financiamento adequadas para estados e municípios foi também um obstáculo para o desenvolvimento do ensino básico. Evidências qualitativas mostram que os governos federais também estavam mais preocupados com o ensino superior, em detrimento do ensino primário. As evidências quantitativas mostram que o nível de competição eleitoral e a descentralização administrativa tiveram efeito positivo nas matrículas em alguns estados, mas a expansão do sufrágio parece ter tido pouca influência nas matrículas. A falta de atenção dada a esse nível de ensino, por conta da falta de voz política da população, teve provavelmente efeitos negativos sobre a estrutura da distribuição de renda do país ao longo do século XX. / This dissertation aims to examine possible explanations for the backwardness in the expansion of Brazilian primary education between 1930 and 1964, despite the fact that Brazil achieved high rates of economic growth through promoting import-substitution industrialization. In particular, the roles of distribution of political power and decentralization in the expansion of primary enrollment rates are addressed. The data show that during the Estado Novo, a dictatorial regime under Vargas rule, there was decrease in primary enrollment rates. The return to democracy in 1945/46 was beneficial to primary schooling. However, contrary to what happened in developed countries, our evidence indicates that Brazils experience is more similar to what happened in India. Education in both countries developed in the context of a highly elitist democracy, in which the expansion of suffrage had little effect on the expansion of education, with a negative impact on long-term economic growth. In addition to the lack of political voice, the lack of adequate financial resources for states and municipalities was also an obstacle to the development of basic education. Qualitative evidence shows that federal governments were more concerned with tertiary schooling, in detriment to primary schooling. Quantitative evidence, in turn, shows that the level of electoral competition and administrative decentralization had positive effects on enrollment rates in some states, but suffrage expansion seems to have had little influence on primary schooling expansion. The lack of attention given to this schooling level, due to the lack of political voice of the population, probably had negative effects on the structure of income distribution in Brazil throughout the 20th century.