Satellite geodesy plays an important role in earth observation. This dissertation presents three applications of satellite geodesy in environmental and climate change. Three satellite geodesy techniques are used: high-precision Global Positioning System (GPS), the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) and Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR). In the first study, I use coastal uplift observed by GPS to study the annual changes in mass loss of the Greenland ice sheet. The data show both spatial and temporal variations of coastal ice mass loss and suggest that a combination of warm atmospheric and oceanic condition drove these variations. In the second study, I use GRACE monthly gravity change estimates to constrain recent freshwater flux from Greenland. The data show that Arctic freshwater flux started to increase rapidly in the mid-late 1990s, coincident with a decrease in the formation of dense Labrador Sea Water, a key component of the deep southward return flow od the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC). Recent freshening of the polar oceans may be reducing formation of Labrador Sea Water and hence may be weakening the AMOC. In the third study, I use InSAR to monitor ground deformation caused by CO2 injection at an enhanced oil recovery site in west Texas. Carbon capture and storage can reduce CO2 emitted from power plants, and is a promising way to mitigate anthropogenic warming. From 2007 to 2011, ~24 million tons of CO2 were sequestered in this field, causing up to 10 MPa pressure buildup in a reservoir at depth, and surface uplift up to 10 cm. This study suggests that surface displacement observed by InSAR is a cost-effective way to estimate reservoir pressure change and monitor the fate of injected fluids at waste disposal and CO2 injection sites.

Ces travaux de thèse proposent une amélioration du Scanning Microdeformation Microscope (SMM),un microscope à sonde locale, pour la caractérisation mécanique élastique des matériaux à l’échellelocale. Il est montré qu’en utilisant n > 2 modes de résonance du SMM, il est possible de découplerles mesures du module de Young et du coefficient de Poisson d’un matériau isotrope.Une étude des modes du résonateur a permis d’enrichir son modèle afin qu’il puisse modélisern > 2 modes. Des procédures ont été développées pour identifier les paramètres de ce modèle etles constantes élastiques des matériaux à partir de n > 2 fréquences de résonance. Enfin, ces procéduresont été appliquées à des exemples de caractérisation à l’échelle locale afin de valider laméthode et d’en exhiber les possibilités et les limites.Pour gagner en robustesse et se diriger vers la caractérisation des matériaux anisotropes, un systèmed’imagerie interférométrique en lumière polarisée, permettant la mesure du champ de rotationde surfaces réfléchissantes dans une direction particulière, a été développé pour être intégré auSMM. Son prisme biréfringent à gradient uniaxial d’indice lui confère sa sensibilité à la rotation. Cesystème est capable de mesurer un champ de rotation localisé comme c’est le cas au voisinage dela pointe du SMM. Il a aussi montré son intérêt dans les cas où l’effet d’échelle rend particulièrementintéressante la mesure de la rotation. / This work proposes an improvement of the Scanning Microdeformation Microscope (SMM), a scanningprobe microscope, for the mechanical elastic characterization of materials at local scale. It demonstratesthat using n > 2 SMM resonance frequencies allows to decouple Young’s modulus andPoisson’s ratio values for an isotropic material.The mechanical description of the resonator has been enriched in order to allow for an accuratemodeling over a wide frequency range. Procedures have been developed to identify the modellingparameters and the elastic constants of the materials from n > 2 resonant frequencies. Finally, theseprocedures have been applied to the characterization of various materials at local scale in order tovalidate the method and to present possibilities and limits.To improve robustness and move towards the characterization of anisotropic materials, a polarizedlightimaging interferometer was developed to measure the rotation field of reflecting surfaces in aparticular direction. The sensitivity to the rotation originates from a homemade birefringent prism withuniaxial gradient of refractive index. This system is able to measure a localized rotation field as it isinduced in the vicinity of the tip of the SMM. Its interest is also demonstrated in cases in which scaleeffects make the rotation measurement preferable to the out-of-plane displacement measurement.

Cette thèse présente les résultats d'observations d'étoiles en rotation rapide menées sur le spectro-interféromètre AMBER du VLTI dans ses modes haute et moyenne résolutions spectrales. Les mesures effectuées sont les visibilités estimées sur trois bases simultanées, les phases différentielles en fonction de la longueur d'onde et des phases de clôtures avec, pour certaines nuits une bonne couverture du plan (u,v). Les données utilisées sont issues de plusieurs campagnes d'observation. Ces dernières étaient fortement dégradées par les défauts optiques d'AMBER, et affectés par des bruits classiques d'interférométrie optique à longue base en IR: défauts du détecteur, bruit de lecture, instabilités du suiveur de franges, ...etc. Leur analyse a nécessité la mise au point d'outils numériques de réduction spécifiques pour atteindre les précisions nécessaires à l'interprétation de mesures interférométriques. Pour interpréter ces mesures j'ai développé un modèle semi-analytique chromatique d'étoile en rotation rapide qui m'a permis d'estimer, à partir des phases différentielles; le degré d'aplatissement, le rayon équatorial, la vitesse de rotation, l'angle d'inclinaison, l'angle position de l'axe de rotation de l'étoile sur le ciel, la distribution de la température effective locale et de la gravité à la surface de l'étoile dans le cadre du théorème de von Zeipel. Les résultats concernant 4 étoiles massives de types spectraux B, A et F m'ont permis de les caractériser pour les mécanismes évoqués ci-dessus et d'ouvrir ainsi la perspective d'études plus systématiques d'objets similaires en étendant ultérieurement ces études à la relation photosphère-enveloppe circumstellaire. / This thesis presents the results of rapidly rotating stars observations conducted on the AMBER spectro-interferometer VLTI in its high average spectral modes and resolutions. The measurements are estimated on three simultaneous visibility bases, differential phases depending on the wavelength and closure phases, with good coverage of the (u, v) plane for some nights. The data used are from several observation campaigns. These were highly degraded by the optical defects of AMBER, and assigned by standard optical interferometry long base IR noises: defects of the detector, reading noise, fringes follower instabilities, ... etc. Their analysis required the development of digital reduction of specific tools to achieve the necessary details to the interpretation of interferometric measurements. In interpreting these measures I developed a chromatic semi-analytical model of rapidly rotating star that allowed me to estimate, from the differential phases; the degree of flattening, the equatorial radius, speed of rotation, angle of inclination, the position angle of the star rotation axis in the sky, the local distribution of the actual temperature and the gravity to the surface of the star within the von Zeipel theorem. The results for four massive stars of spectral type B, A and F have allowed me to characterize the mechanisms discussed above and thus open framework for more systematic studies of similar objects subsequently extending these studies to the relationship photosphere circumstellar envelope.

Les structures immergées telles que des hydroliennes génèrent des écoulements turbulents pouvant fortement perturber les fonds marins. La compréhension de l’impact de la présence de ces structures nécessite de comprendre la dynamique tridimensionnelle des tourbillons qu’elles génèrent. Les méthodes optiques, par leur aspect non intrusif, permettent d’analyser de telles dynamiques. L’imagerie interférométrique en défaut de mise au point est une technique développée à l’originepour la mesure de taille de particules sphériques transparentes telles que des gouttes ou des bulles. Nous proposons ici l’extension de cette technique à la mesure simultanée de particules irrégulières et sphériques. Un premier montage expérimental a permis de valider la méthode pour la mesure de taille et de position tridimensionnelle de grains de sable et de bulles d’air dans l’eau. Un second dispositif a été réalisé sur un canal à houle de plus grandes dimensions, permettant d’introduire les notions de suivi tridimensionnel de particules irrégulières et d’analyse de variation de leur orientation. Un troisième montage composé de deux dispositifs d’imagerie interférométrique selon deux angles d’observations est utilisé pour la reconnaissance de forme de différentes familles de particules irrégulières. Grâce à des comparaisons avec des simulations, les dimensions et l’orientation de ces particules sont déterminées. Ce type de montage devrait être adapté à la caractérisation de cristaux de glace dont divers types de formes sont connus. Ces travaux ouvrent des perspectives pour l’extension de la technique aux mesures de vitesses de particules dans des écoulements hostiles, combinées avec la reconnaissance de forme et la détermination de la rotation de particules. / Submerged structures such as tidal turbines generate turbulent flows that can strongly disrupt the seabed. Understanding the impact of the presence of these structures requires understanding the three-dimensional dynamics of the vortices they generate. Optical methods, by their non-intrusive aspect, make it possible to analyze these dynamics. Interferometric Particle Imaging is a technique originally developed for the measurement of transparent spherical particles such as droplets orbubbles. We offer here an extension of this technique for the simultaneous characterization of irregular and spherical particles in a flow. A first experimental set-up has confirmed the validity of the method for the size and three-dimensional position measurement of grains of sand and air bubbles in water. A second device was used on a wave flume of bigger dimensions, introducing the notions of three-dimensional tracking of irregular particles and the analysis of the variation of their orientation.A third device made of two Interferometric Particle Imaging set-ups at two angles of observation is described for the shape recognition of different families of irregular particles. Through comparisons with simulations, dimensions and orientations of these particles are determined. This kind of device should be suitable for the characterization of ice crystals for which various shapes are known. The prospects that such results provide include the extension of the technique to the particle velocitymeasurement in hostile conditions, combined with the shape recognition and the determination of rotation of particles.

No description available.

New radio telescopes under development, will significantly enhance the capabilities of radio astronomy in the Southern Hemisphere. South Africa, in particular, is actively involved in the development of a new array (MeerKAT) as well as in the expansion of existing very long baseline interferometer arrays in the south. Participation in these new developments demands a thorough understanding of radio astronomy techniques, and data analysis, and this thesis focusses on two projects with the aim of gaining such experience. The Southern Hemisphere very long baselines array is not well served with calibrator sources and there are significant gaps in the present calibrator distribution on the sky. An adequately dense, well distributed, set of strong, compact calibrator or reference sources is needed. With this in mind, observations using the Southern Hemisphere long baseline array were conducted to investigate a sample of candidate calibrator sources. The compactness of the sources was investigated and new potential calibrators have been identified. Single antenna radio spectroscopy of OH masers has identified sources of 1720 MHz emission associated with supernova remnants at the shock interface between the expanding supernova remnant and a molecular cloud. Models indicate that these masers are shock excited and can only be produced under tight physical constraints. Out ows from newly-formed stars create nebulous regions known as Herbig-Haro objects when they interact with the surrounding medium, and these regions are potentially similar to those seen in supernova remnants. If conditions behind the shock fronts of Herbig-Haro objects are able to support 1720-MHz OH masers they could be a useful diagnostic tool for star formation. A survey toward Herbig-Haro objects using a single-dish radio telescope did detect 1720-MHz OH lines in emission, but neither their spectral signature nor follow-up observations with the Very Large Array showed evidence of maser emission. / Mathematical Sciences / Ph.D. (Astronomy)

Optical long baseline interferometry was recently established as a technique capable of resolving stars and their circumstellar environments at the milliarcsecond (mas) resolution level. This high-resolution opens an entire new window to the study of astrophysical systems, providing information inaccessible by other techniques. Astrophysical disks are observed in a wide variety of systems, from galaxies up to planetary rings, commonly sharing similar physical processes. Two particular disk like systems are studied in the thesis: (i) B He-rich stars that exhibits magnetic fields in order of kG and that trap their winds in structures called magnetospheres; and (ii) Be stars, fast rotating stars that create circumstellar viscous disks. This study uses the interferometric technique to investigate both the photosphere proper and the circumstellar environment of these stars. The objective is to combine interferometry with other observational techniques (such as spectroscopy and polarimetry) to perform a complete and well-constrained physical description of these systems. This description is accompanied by radiative transfer models performed by the HDUST code. / Interferometria óptica de longa linha de base recentemente estabeleceu-se como uma técnica capaz de resolver estrelas e seus ambientes circunstelares no nível de mili segundos de arcos (\\textit). Esta alta resolução abre uma janela inteiramente nova para o estudo de sistemas astrofísicos, fornecendo informações inacessíveis por outras técnicas. Discos astrofísicos são observados numa ampla variedade de sistemas, de galáxias à discos planetários, em geral compartilhando de processos físicos similares. Dois sistemas de discos foram estudados nesta tese: (i) o estrelas B ricas em He e que possuem campos magnéticos da ordem de kG e que confinam seus ventos em estruturas chamadas magnetosferas; e (ii) estrelas Be, estrelas de rotação rápida que criam um disco circumstelar viscoso. Este estudo usa a técnica interferométrica para investigar ambas a própria fotosfera e o ambiente circunstelar destas estrelas. O objetivo é combinar a interferometria com outras técnicas observacionais (tal como espectroscopia e polarimetria) para realizar uma descrição física completa e precisa destes sistemas. Esta descrição é acompanhada por modelos de transferência radiativa executados pelo código HDUST.

Efficient and accurate sensing of various parameters is needed for numerous applications. In this regard, different categories of sensors play a significant role and different applications require diverse sensing mechanisms owing to the operating conditions and field constraints. Among the several sensor methodologies available, optical fiber sensors have found significant attention, because of their advantages such as negligible foot print, small mass, immunity to Electromagnetic Interference, etc. In the category of optical fiber sensors, Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) sensors have found importance in many fields such as health monitoring of civil structures, environmental monitoring involving gas & humidity sensing, monitoring parameters like pressure, tilt, displacement, etc. In the recent times, FBGs have found applications in biomedical, biomechanical and biosensing fields. A FBG is a periodic change of the refractive index of the core of a single mode optical fiber along its longitudinal axis. The periodic modulation in the index of refraction is obtained by exposing a photosensitive germanium-doped silica fiber to an intense UV laser beam. FBGs, in the basic form, can sense strain and temperature. However, in recent years, several newer sensing applications of FBGs have been demonstrated. Some of the main features of the FBG sensor which qualify them for diverse sensing applications are high sensitivity, large operational bandwidth, multiplexing & multi modal sensing capability, etc. In this thesis work, FBG sensor based devices have been developed for newer applications in bio-medical fields for the measurement of force, flow and temperature. Particularly, novel transduction methodologies have been proposed, in order to convert the measurand parameter into a secondary parameter that can be sensed by the FBG sensor. The evaluation of the force required for a spinal needle to penetrate various tissue layers from skin to the epidural space is vital. In this work, a novel technique for dynamic monitoring of force experienced by a spinal needle during lumbar puncture using Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) sensor has been developed. The Fiber Bragg Grating Force Device (FBGFD) developed, measures the force on the spinal needle due to varied resistance offered by different tissue layers during its traversal. The effect of gauge of the spinal needle used for the lumbar puncture procedure affects the force required for its insertion into the tissue. The FBGFD developed, has been further utilized for a comparative study of the force required for lumbar puncture of various tissue layers with spinal needle of different gauges. The results obtained may serve as a guideline for selection of suitable gauge spinal needle during lumbar puncture minimizing post puncture side effects on patients. The pulmonary function test carried out using a spirometer, provides vital information about the functional status of the respiratory system of the subject. A Fiber Bragg Grating Spirometer (FBGS) has been developed which has the ability to convert the rate of air flow into a shift in wavelength that can be acquired by the FBG sensor. The FBGS can dynamically acquire the complete breathing sequence comprising of the inhalation phase, pause phase and exhalation phase in terms of the air flow rate along with the time duration of each phase. Methods are adopted to analyse and determine important pulmonary parameters using FBGS and compare these parameters with those obtained with a commercially available hospital grade pneumotachograph spirometer. Thermal imaging is one of the emerging non-invasive neuro-imaging techniques which can potentially indicate the boundaries of a brain tumor. The variation in tissue surface temperature is indicative of a tumor existence. In this work a FBG temperature sensor (FBGTS) has been developed for thermography of a simulated tissue using Agar material. The temperature of the embedded heater which mimics a brain tumor along with the surface temperature of the tissue model, is acquired using FBGTSs simultaneously. Further, the surface temperatures are studied for varying heater temperatures as well as varying positions of the heater in the simulated tissue model. To conclude, FBG based devices have been developed in this work, for applications in biomedical domain, with appropriate transduction methodologies for sensing different parameters such as force, flow and temperature.

Les ondes gravitationnelles sont des solutions aux équations gourvenant la dynamique de la gravitation prédite en 1918 à partir de la théorie de la Relativité Générale d'Einstein. Elles représentent la propagation d'une oscillation de l'espace-temps induisant d'infimes variations de distance sur leur passage entre des masses libres. Depuis deux décennies, un réseau d'interféromètres de Michelson kilométriques a été développé et mis en opération à travers le monde afin de prouver l'existence des ondes gravitationnelles en détectant leur passage sur Terre. Leur signature est recherchée dans un canal de détection étalonné, obtenu à partir des mesures fournies par le détecteur et reconstruisant le signal absolu d'une onde gravitationnelle le traversant. La vérification de la procédure est nécessaire pour déceler d'éventuelles erreurs systématiques d'étalonnage biaisant l'exploitation du canal par les analyses des données. Depuis plusieurs années, une nouvelle technique d'étalonnage est développée à cette fin dans les différents interféromètres du réseau et repose sur la pression de radiation d'un laser modulé en puissance afin d'induire un déplacement étalonné de l'un de ses miroirs. Le dispositif, appelé étalonneur laser, permet de reproduire le passage d'une onde gravitationnelle connue et d'en vérifier la reconstruction dans le canal de détection. Le travail de cette thèse a concerné la mise en \oe uvre de cette technique pour l'interféromètre franco-italien Virgo afin de vérifier la reconstruction de son signal d'onde gravitationnelle. Le principe de fonctionnement de l'étalonneur laser installé sur le site est d'abord détaillé et son étalonnage est ensuite décrit avec les campagnes de mesures réalisées. Enfin, les vérifications faites durant les deux périodes de prises de données de Virgo qui se sont déroulées entre 2010 et 2011 seront présentées. Les résultats ont permis de valider la reconstruction du signal d'onde gravitationnelle de Virgo et ses incertitudes confirmant leur impact négligeable sur l'analyse des données. / Gravitational waves are solutions to equations governing the dynamics of gravitation predicted from Einstein's theory of General Relativity in 1918. Gravitational waves describe ripples of space-time producing weak variations of distance between free masses along their propagation. Over the past two decades, an international array of ground-based, kilometer-scale Michelson interferometers has been developed to detect gravitational waves going through Earth and is now in operation. The gravitational wave signature is sought in a calibrated stream obtained from detector output measurements and giving the absolute signal of a gravitational waves going through it. A check of the procedure is required to avoid potential systematic calibration errors leading to an incorrect data stream and bias in its use by data analysis. Since severals years, a new calibration technique is developed for that purpose for each network's interferometer and uses the radiation pressure of a power-modulated laser to induce calibrated displacements of their mirrors. The associated setup, called Photon Calibrator, allows to mimic a gravitational waves passing the detector in order to verify its reconstruction in the detection channel. The scope of this thesis is the implementation of this technique for the French-Italian interferometer Virgo to check its gravitational wave signal reconstruction procedure. The operating principle of the setup installed is first described and its calibration is then detailed with measurement campaigns performed. Finally verifications performed for the two Virgo Science runs performed between 2010 and 2011 are presented. The conclusion of this study allowed to the validate the Virgo gravitational wave signal reconstruction with its uncertainties and has confirmed their negligeable impact on data analysis.

Optical long baseline interferometry was recently established as a technique capable of resolving stars and their circumstellar environments at the milliarcsecond (mas) resolution level. This high-resolution opens an entire new window to the study of astrophysical systems, providing information inaccessible by other techniques. Astrophysical disks are observed in a wide variety of systems, from galaxies up to planetary rings, commonly sharing similar physical processes. Two particular disk like systems are studied in the thesis: (i) B He-rich stars that exhibits magnetic fields in order of kG and that trap their winds in structures called magnetospheres; and (ii) Be stars, fast rotating stars that create circumstellar viscous disks. This study uses the interferometric technique to investigate both the photosphere proper and the circumstellar environment of these stars. The objective is to combine interferometry with other observational techniques (such as spectroscopy and polarimetry) to perform a complete and well-constrained physical description of these systems. This description is accompanied by radiative transfer models performed by the HDUST code. / Interferometria óptica de longa linha de base recentemente estabeleceu-se como uma técnica capaz de resolver estrelas e seus ambientes circunstelares no nível de mili segundos de arcos (\\textit). Esta alta resolução abre uma janela inteiramente nova para o estudo de sistemas astrofísicos, fornecendo informações inacessíveis por outras técnicas. Discos astrofísicos são observados numa ampla variedade de sistemas, de galáxias à discos planetários, em geral compartilhando de processos físicos similares. Dois sistemas de discos foram estudados nesta tese: (i) o estrelas B ricas em He e que possuem campos magnéticos da ordem de kG e que confinam seus ventos em estruturas chamadas magnetosferas; e (ii) estrelas Be, estrelas de rotação rápida que criam um disco circumstelar viscoso. Este estudo usa a técnica interferométrica para investigar ambas a própria fotosfera e o ambiente circunstelar destas estrelas. O objetivo é combinar a interferometria com outras técnicas observacionais (tal como espectroscopia e polarimetria) para realizar uma descrição física completa e precisa destes sistemas. Esta descrição é acompanhada por modelos de transferência radiativa executados pelo código HDUST.