La mammographie est une technique d’imagerie par rayons x, considérée comme la technique actuelle la plus efficace pour dépister le cancer du sein à un stade précoce. A cause des risques de carcinogenèse induite par les rayonnements associés à l’examen par rayons x, il est donc essentiel de réaliser un étalonnage précis du faisceau de rayonnements afin de réduire au maximum la dose de rayonnement délivrée au sein du patient et d’obtenir la meilleure qualité d’image possible. L’étalonnage du faisceau de rayons x est effectué avec des chambres d’ionisation, instruments du commerce qui doivent être préalablement étalonnées dans des laboratoires d’étalonnage de référence, de préférence dans le même type de faisceaux de rayonnements que celui utilisé pour le diagnostic.Dans un pays donné, les laboratoires d’étalonnage de référence en dosimétrie des rayonnements sont généralement rattachés au laboratoire national de métrologie ; ce sont des laboratoires de référence primaires ou secondaires de dosimétrie. Les laboratoires primaires vérifient l’exactitude de leurs mesures conduites avec des étalons primaires en participant à des comparaisons internationales alors que les laboratoires secondaires, détenteurs d’étalons secondaires, doivent procéder à la caractérisation de leurs instruments de référence.Afin de répondre aux besoins des laboratoires nationaux de métrologie le Bureau international des poids et mesures (BIPM) maintient des étalons de référence stables pour la dosimétrie des rayonnements ionisants et met à disposition de ses États Membres des équipements internationaux pour la comparaison des étalons primaires et la caractérisation des étalons nationaux secondaires afin d’assurer l’unification mondiale des mesures et leur traçabilité au Système international d’unités (SI).Le Département des rayonnements ionisants du BIPM a effectué les premières comparaisons internationales dans des faisceaux de rayons x aux basses énergies en 1966 et, en 2001, les Instituts nationaux de métrologie (INM) ont pour la première fois proposé que le BIPM étende ses activités à la mammographie.Une description du travail que j’ai entrepris au BIPM pour répondre aux besoins des laboratoires nationaux de métrologie en matière de comparaisons et d’étalonnages dans ce domaine est présentée dans cette thèse et distribuée en quatre parties : l’établissement de sept faisceaux de rayonnement en utilisant un tube à rayons x à anode en tungstène et filtre en molybdène (faisceau W/Mo); l’installation d’un tube à rayons x à anode en molybdène avec filtre en molybdène et l’établissement de quatre faisceaux de rayonnement (faisceau Mo/Mo); conception et fabrication d’un nouvel étalon primaire pour la dosimétrie dans les faisceaux mammographiques. la création d’une nouvelle série de comparaisons en continu du BIPM, identifiées dans la base de données du BIPM sur les comparaisons clés KCDB sous la référence BIPM.RI(I)-K7 et un programme pour l’étalonnage des étalons nationaux secondaires qui inclut le nouveau dispositif expérimental dans le système managérial de la qualité du département des rayonnements ionisants (RI) du BIPM.L’expertise acquise lors de ce travail est maintenant transféré aux INM pour les aider dans le développement de leurs propres étalons primaires et à améliorer leurs dispositifs expérimentaux existants. Jusqu’à aujourd’hui 6 comparaisons ont été menées à bien dans le nouveau dispositif expérimental établi au BIPM ; la participation à la nouvelle comparaison–clé continue permet aux INM de soutenir leurs capacités d’étalonnages et de mesures (CMC). La caractérisation et l’étalonnage des étalons nationaux secondaires ont été réalisés pour l’heure pour 5 INM. / Mammography is an x-ray examination of the breast, considered to be the most sensitive technique currently available for early detection of breast cancer. Because of risks of radiation-induced carcinogenesis associated with the use of x rays, accurate calibration of the x-ray unit is essential in order to minimize the radiation dose delivered to the patient breast but having a good image quality. The beam calibration is made using ionization chambers, commercial instruments that need to be characterized at standard reference dosimetry laboratories in well-defined x-ray beams similar to those used in the diagnostic institutes.Standard reference laboratories for radiation dosimetry are usually part of the National Metrology Institute of each country; they can either be Primary or Secondary Standard Dosimetry Laboratories. Primary Laboratories verify the accuracy of their measurements using the primary standards by taking part in international comparisons while the Secondary Laboratories, holding secondary standards, need the characterization of their reference instruments. In order to fulfil these requirements of the National Metrology Institutes (NMIs), the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM) maintains stable reference standards for radiation dosimetry and provides to the its Member States an international facility for comparisons of primary standards and characterization of secondary standards to ensure world-wide uniformity of measurements and their traceability to the International System of Units (SI).The Ionizing Radiation Department of the BIPM started international comparisons and characterizations in low-energy x-ray beams in 1966 and in 2001, the NMIs required the BIPM to extend these activities to mammography beams. A description of the work I carried out at the BIPM to provide an international facility for comparisons and calibrations in the mammography field is presented in this thesis, divided into four stages:  establishment of seven reference radiation beams using the combination tungsten-anode x-ray tube and molybdenum filtration (W/Mo beams);  installation of a molybdenum-anode x-ray tube with molybdenum filtration and establishment of four reference radiation beams (Mo/Mo beams);  design and construction of a new primary standard free-air chamber for the dosimetry of the mammography beams;  establishment of a new ongoing international comparison in the new reference mammography beams, registered in the BIPM key comparison database KCDB as BIPM.RI(I)-K7 and a programme for the calibration of national secondary standards by including the new facility in the quality management system of the Ionizing Radiation (IR) Department of the BIPM.The experience obtained during this work is now transferred to the NMIs to help them in the development of primary standards and to improve their existing facilities.To date, six successfully comparisons have been carried out in the new facility established at the BIPM; the participation in the new ongoing key comparison allow the NMIs to support their calibration and measurement capabilities (CMCs). Characterization and calibration of national secondary standards have been done for five NMIs.

The starting point of this research is the question, may reading acquisition be more or less effective depending on the language in which it is perform? Two categories for classifying the languages have been developed. First the notion of linguistic family is employed to describe the languages from a cultural and historical perspective. Secondly, the notion of orthographic depth is used for differentiating the languages according to the correspondence between orthography and phonetic. These categories have been related to the databases PIRLS 2001 and 2006 (international assessments about reading developed by the IEA), the aim being to connect reading achievement to the language in which students answered the test. However, it is clear that the language is not an isolated factor, but part of a complex structure of determinants of reading. Therefore, factors related to students and schools have also been incorporated to this research. Moreover, the multidimensionality of the reading process has been taken into account by distinguishing in the analysis the different aspects that made the process according to PIRLS: informative reading, literary reading, process comprehension of high and low order. To answer to the questions proposed by this research a hierarchical statistical model (multilevel) was developed, it was able to account for the connection between reading achievement, language and other associated factors. As a result, contextual factors (home and school) were more significant than language. Moreover, determinacy may vary if taking into account educational systems.

abstract: When my attention was brought to the overwhelming lack of family policy support in the United States, my curiosity led me to look into what other industrialized nations are doing to support growing families and find out what policies and programs have been put in place to better facilitate the work-home balance. I first provide a brief background context of family policy in the United States, leading up to the development and implementation of our nation's parental leave legislation, the Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA). I present the crucial concerns of this provision, as well as the effects that policy has on children's well-being. The second major part of this analysis deals with child care programs and the myriad challenges so many families encounter in this realm. Specifically addressed are the topics of affordability, accessibility and quality of child care found in the U.S. After an in-depth look at U.S. policies, I transition to a comparative analysis of parental leave and child care provision in a range of other nations in the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), specifically Canada, Australia, the United Kingdom, France, Sweden and Norway. I carefully chose these countries to offer a broad spectrum of family policies to compare to our own. I then return to a discussion of limitations of U.S. family policy and the values and ideology it represents, as well as the importance of strengthening such policies. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.A. Social and Philosophical Foundations of Education 2012

This thesis deals with the comparison of the European Union countries, in particular their schemes of pension and living standard of pensioners who use these schemes in confrontation with the economic standard of these countries. After a theoretical introduction, where various aspects of operation and theoretical construction of the pension system are introduced, there follows a brief outline of the situation in each country, completed with comparison of the values of indicators relating to the pension systems. The middle part of this thesis is devoted to the process of population aging, as the main cause of the current need for reforming the pension systems and the adequacy of extending the age for retirement. The last part of this thesis is devoted to determining the sequence of the states of the European Union by the standard of living of people in retirement age and confronting these results with the information on economic standard of these countries.

<p>Aim. This study suggests a set of methodologies to combine different indicators of road safety into a single index. The RSDI is a simple and quick composite index, which may become a significant measurement in comparing, ranking and determining road safety levels in different countries and regions worldwide. Design. One particular concern in designing a Road Safety Development Index (RSDI) is to come up with a comprehensive set of exposure and risk indicators which includes as far as possible the main parameters in road safety related to human-vehicle-road and country patterns instead of considering few and isolated indicators such as accident rates. The RSDI gives a broad picture compared to the traditional models in road safety.</p><p> Challenges. The differences in definitions, non-collection of data, no reliability of data and underreporting are problems for the construction of RSDI. In addition, the index should be as relevant as possible for different countries of the world, especially in developing countries.</p><p>Empirical study. This study empirically compares the road safety situation and trends between ten Southeast Asian countries and Sweden for the period 1994- 2003. Methodologies. Eleven indicators are chosen in RSDI, which have been categorised in nine dimensions. Four main approaches (objective and subjective) are used to calculate RSDI and determine which one is the best. One approach uses equal weights for all indicators and countries, whereas the other approaches give different weights depending on the importance of indicators.</p><p>Findings. The thesis examines the RSDI for the ten ASEAN countries and Sweden in 2003. The results from this study indicate a remarkable difference between ASEAN countries even at the same level of motorisation. Singapore and Brunei seem to have the best RSDI record among the ASEAN countries according to the indicators used, while Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam show lower RSDI records. Conclusions. The RSDI results seem very promising and worth testing further applications with bigger samples of countries and from different parts of the world.</p> / ISRN/Report code: LiU-Tek-Lic 2005:29

La valutazione dei docenti occupa un ruolo centrale nelle agende politiche dei governi; l’Italia ha avviato una riflessione in questa direzione ma ad oggi gli insegnanti non sono valutati. La ricerca analizza la relazione tra l’introduzione di un sistema di valutazione degli insegnanti e la promozione di comunità professionali nelle scuole; la valutazione dei docenti è considerata strumento utile allo sviluppo di una scuola come comunità professionale. Lo studio dei sistemi di valutazione degli insegnanti, pur non prescindendo da un’analisi economica, deve essere accompagnato da una visione pedagogica sulla scuola e sulla funzione docente, intendendosi sugli elementi che le fondano; la prospettiva di lavoro reputa la professionalità un prisma complesso costituito da dimensioni personali, organizzative e comunitarie. È stata indagata una realtà statunitense innovativa e sistematica per il modello impiegato per valutare gli insegnanti: Denver Professional Compensation System for Teachers, così da offrire spunti di riflessione anche per l’Italia. Dall’analisi sono emersi gli snodi e le opportunità della valutazione della professionalità docente: i vantaggi di una valutazione a servizio della pratica professionale, che prevede interventi alla carriera, alle retribuzioni, che integra forme e modalità differenti di valutare la professionalità e che è collegata al decision making. / The assessment of teachers plays a central role in the political agendas of governments; in Italy there is a discussion on this direction but at the moment teachers are not evaluated. The research examines the relationship between the introduction of a teachers’ evaluation system and the promotion of professional communities in schools; teachers’ evaluation is considered useful for the development of a school as a professional community. The study of teachers’ evaluation systems, while not disregarding economic analysis, must be associated by a pedagogical vision on the school and the teaching function, considering their founding elements; the prospect of the work accounts teaching professionalism as a complex prism of personal, organizational and community dimensions. It is investigated an innovative and systematic model used to evaluate teachers in the USA: Denver Professional Compensation System for Teachers, in order to offer food for thought even for Italy. The analysis highlighted the opportunities of the teachers’ evaluation system: the benefits of an evaluation in the service of professional practice, which provides assistance to career and to salary, which integrates different ways to assess the professionalism, and which is connected to decision making.

Le point de départ de cette recherche concerne la question suivante : l’acquisition de la lecture, peut-il être plus ou moins efficace en fonction de la langue dans laquelle il s’effectue? Deux catégories pour classer les langues on été définies dans ce travail. Premièrement, la notion de famille linguistique est à la base d’une description des langues à partir d'une perspective historique et culturelle. Deuxièmement la notion de profondeur orthographique est mobilisée, celle-ci différencie les langues en fonction de la correspondance entre l'orthographe et la phonétique. Ces catégories ont été mises en rapport avec les bases de données PIRLS 2001 et 2006 (étude internationale sur la lecture menée par l'IEA), afin de relier la performance en lecture et la langue dans laquelle les élèves ont répondu au test. Toutefois, il est clair que la langue n'est pas un facteur isolé, car elle fait partie d'un ensemble complexe de déterminants; ainsi, des facteurs liés aux élèves et au milieu scolaire ont également été incorporés dans l'étude. En outre, il a été tenu compte de la multidimensionnalité du processus de lecture, en distinguant dans les analyses les différents domaines mesurés par l’enquête : lecture d'informative, littéraire, et compréhension des processus d'ordre complexe et simple. Pour répondre aux questions de cette recherche nous avons élaboré un modèle statistique hiérarchique capable de rendre compte de la relation entre la compréhension de la lecture, la langue et les facteurs qui y sont associés. En dernière analyse, les facteurs contextuels (individuels et scolaires) se sont révélés être plus importants que la langue elle-même. En outre, les déterminants du niveau en lecture dépendent des systèmes éducatifs observés dans cette enquête. / The starting point of this research is the question, may reading acquisition be more or less effective depending on the language in which it is perform? Two categories for classifying the languages have been developed. First the notion of linguistic family is employed to describe the languages from a cultural and historical perspective. Secondly, the notion of orthographic depth is used for differentiating the languages according to the correspondence between orthography and phonetic. These categories have been related to the databases PIRLS 2001 and 2006 (international assessments about reading developed by the IEA), the aim being to connect reading achievement to the language in which students answered the test. However, it is clear that the language is not an isolated factor, but part of a complex structure of determinants of reading. Therefore, factors related to students and schools have also been incorporated to this research. Moreover, the multidimensionality of the reading process has been taken into account by distinguishing in the analysis the different aspects that made the process according to PIRLS: informative reading, literary reading, process comprehension of high and low order. To answer to the questions proposed by this research a hierarchical statistical model (multilevel) was developed, it was able to account for the connection between reading achievement, language and other associated factors. As a result, contextual factors (home and school) were more significant than language. Moreover, determinacy may vary if taking into account educational systems.

La thèse porte sur l’accès au travail des réfugiés en France et en Bulgarie. Il s’agit d’une part de comprendre comment leurs carrières professionnelles sont réorientées par les contextes sociaux rencontrés dans le pays d’accueil, et d’autre part, d’analyser les remaniements identitaires qui sont induits par cette réorientation. La première partie s’efforce de rendre compte des spécificités de la quête de travail des réfugiés comme d’une expérience sociale dont il faut saisir et articuler les différentes dimensions (subjective/objective, micro/macro, local/global). La deuxième partie s’engage dans une comparaison d’effets sociétaux propres à la France et à la Bulgarie afin d’expliquer pourquoi tel ou tel type de carrière prédomine dans l’un et l’autre de ces pays, et pourquoi les facteurs qui conduisent les réfugiés à s’engager dans tel ou tel type de carrière n’y produisent pas les mêmes effets. La troisième partie analyse des processus de remaniement identitaire en termes de réaction au déni de reconnaissance et de travail de maintien de l’identité. / This thesis deals with the issues refugees face in accessing work in France and Bulgaria. The thesis focuses in particular on two sets of issues, namely, the ways in which the refugees’ professional careers are reoriented in their encounters with the social contexts of the host country; and the identity transformations that are involved in these reorientations of their professional careers. The first part of this thesis aims to characterise the specific traits of the refugees’ search for work. The thesis contends that this search has to be conceived as a multilayered social experience, and proposes a way to theoretically and methodologically connect its various dimensions (subjective/objective, micro/macro, local/global). The second part compares “societal effects” in France and Bulgaria in order to explain why particular types of professional careers are predominant in each country. It also explains why some factors play a role in the fact that certain refugees are developing certain type of careers in one country but not in the other. The third part deals with identity transformations in terms of reactions to denials of recognition, and in terms of the work performed by individuals to preserve their identity. / Дисертацията разглежда достьпа до труд на бежанци вьв Франция и Бьлгария. От една страна, дисертацията има за цел да изследва как професионалните им кариери са преориентирани от социалните контексти на приемащото общество и, от друга страна, да анализира идентичностните трансформации, които са предизвикани от тази реориентация. Пьрва част има за цел да разгледа спецификите на това тьрсене на труд като социален опит, който трябва да бьде обхванат и артикулиран в различните му измерения (субективно/обективно, микро/макро, локално/глобално). Втора част разгрьща сравнението на социални ефекти, характерни за френското и бьлгарското общество, за да се обясни защо определен тип кариера преобладава в дадена дьржава и защо факторите, които карат бежанците да се ангажират в определ тип кариера, не предизвикват еднакви резултати. Трета част има за цел да анализира процесите на идентичностна трансформация като реакция на отказа на признание и като стратегия за сьхранение на идентичността.

The thesis deals with the comparison of the 27 European educational systems. The topic covers all main aspects of education funding system at higher education level and defines the impact of funding policy on educational standard. The following part of the thesis aims at key issues of tertiary education in other countries of the European Union. The topic focuses on the main policy goals of public funding, different forms of funding mechanisms, financial autonomy and control, the extent to which access to educational institutions is free, private contributions, the system of grants, scholarships, loans and other financial and social support for learners and their families. It is described their common features and their specifics. The thesis deals with the different approach of funding higher education in time of economic growth and recession. The last part of this thesis is devoted to grouping of states based on the defined information and other data of tertiary education and to determining the sequence of the states of the European Union by the standard of education.

Aim. This study suggests a set of methodologies to combine different indicators of road safety into a single index. The RSDI is a simple and quick composite index, which may become a significant measurement in comparing, ranking and determining road safety levels in different countries and regions worldwide. Design. One particular concern in designing a Road Safety Development Index (RSDI) is to come up with a comprehensive set of exposure and risk indicators which includes as far as possible the main parameters in road safety related to human-vehicle-road and country patterns instead of considering few and isolated indicators such as accident rates. The RSDI gives a broad picture compared to the traditional models in road safety.  Challenges. The differences in definitions, non-collection of data, no reliability of data and underreporting are problems for the construction of RSDI. In addition, the index should be as relevant as possible for different countries of the world, especially in developing countries. Empirical study. This study empirically compares the road safety situation and trends between ten Southeast Asian countries and Sweden for the period 1994- 2003. Methodologies. Eleven indicators are chosen in RSDI, which have been categorised in nine dimensions. Four main approaches (objective and subjective) are used to calculate RSDI and determine which one is the best. One approach uses equal weights for all indicators and countries, whereas the other approaches give different weights depending on the importance of indicators. Findings. The thesis examines the RSDI for the ten ASEAN countries and Sweden in 2003. The results from this study indicate a remarkable difference between ASEAN countries even at the same level of motorisation. Singapore and Brunei seem to have the best RSDI record among the ASEAN countries according to the indicators used, while Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam show lower RSDI records. Conclusions. The RSDI results seem very promising and worth testing further applications with bigger samples of countries and from different parts of the world. / <p>ISRN/Report code: LiU-Tek-Lic 2005:29</p>