Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA) covers a set of tools and techniques that aim to estimate the environmental impacts generated by a product or service all along its life-cycle including: rawmaterial extraction, production steps, transportation, use phase and end-of-life scenarios.The Life-Cycle Inventory (LCI) is a key step in LCA. It focuses on quantifying all physicaland/or monetary flows involved in the life-cycle of the product/service considered. Theseflows are named as ‘elementary flows’ in ISO terms. After having dealt with the main issuesof the ‘Goal and Scope definition’ step, that is giving a clear definition of the ‘functional unit’to consider, setting clear boundaries between elements to count in and those to disregard,practitioners need a coherent framework to quantify elementary flows and estimate missingelements. Several methodologies have been developed, each of them with both clearadvantages but also distinct disadvantages, depending on the purpose of the study: processbasedmethods, Input-Output based methods (IO-based methods), and also hybrid methods.In 2004, Suh suggested a method known as IHA (Integrated Hybrid Analysis) that appears towipe out the strict boundary between process-based and IO-based methods, taking advantagesof both methods as complementarities. Previous hybrid models were found incompleteregarding end-of-life scenario, especially with open-loop recycling.However, Suh admits that there remain several drawbacks in the IHA model, such as thetreatment of international trade and flows of products and services. They are usuallyconsidered as a single, homogeneous commodity despite their huge variety. This is apersistent limitation, already known by process-based and IO-based LCA practitioners. In aglobalized economy, where most products are manufactured in one place and consumed onthe other side of the world, this serious limitation cannot hold any longer.In this thesis, a review of both process-based, IO-based and hybrid methods for LCI ispresented, in terms of principles, advantages and limitations. It is followed by an explanationand demonstration of the mathematics underpinning the IHA model. Then, a model isproposed that would enable the model to take international trade into account. This is enabledthanks to the inspiration provided by a multi-regional framework proposed for ecologicalfootprint calculation. A numerical example supports this suggestion.The outcomes of this improved model are thought to go beyond its initial aims: the multiregionalIHA model could act as a variable geometry model where strongly affected regionsare efficiently focused on, without disregarding the others. This could prove efficient inavoiding side-effects of policy-making. Also, it would enable the development of moreregion-specific environmental impact coefficients, thus putting less pressure on fragileecosystems. The IHA model is a robust model: it is simple to handle – provided a userfriendlyinterface exists – but with a complex and evolutionary engine. It is compatible withan iterative progress in data collection. User-friendly software development could proveefficient to spread LCA practice and increase information exchange among industries,database builders and researchers. Using a multi-region framework would help industriescustomize impact assessment according to both the regional environmental condition andspecific geographic distribution of the supply chain, thus enriching their toolbox for strategicplanning.

La presente investigación, tiene como objetivo principal identificar las variables determinantes que influyeron en las exportaciones de la subpartida nacional 03.04.42.00.00, filetes de trucha fresca o refrigerada, a Estados Unidos en el periodo 2014 – 2017. Las variables para este estudio son Producción, Precio FOB y Tipo de Cambio. Inicialmente se explica las bases teóricas en comercio internacional y conceptuales sobre el producto elegido, sector, mercado de destino y definición de variables desarrollados en la investigación. Además, la metodología planteada es de enfoque cuantitativo, de alcance explicativo, de tipo longitudinal y de diseño de investigación no experimental. Asimismo, se realizó el desarrollo y análisis de resultados con data secundaria obtenida de las instituciones como: Banco Central de Reserva del Perú, Veritrade y Ministerio de la Producción. Posterior a la recolección de datos estas son procesadas en la herramienta estadística SPSS, utilizando el Modelo de Regresión Lineal Múltiple como se plantea en la tesis de Martínez & Pinedo (2019). En base a las preguntas de investigación se concluyó que las variables más relevantes que influyeron en las exportaciones de la subpartida nacional 03.04.42.00.00 a Estados Unidos son Precio FOB y Tipo de cambio. / The main objective of this research is to identify the determining variables that influenced exports of the national subheading 03.04.42.00.00, fresh or chilled trout fillets, to the United States in the period 2014-2017. The variables for this study are Production, FOB Price and Exchange Rate. Initially, the theoretical bases in international trade and conceptual about the chosen product, sector, target market and definition of variables developed in the research are explained. In addition, the proposed methodology is quantitative in approach, explanatory in scope, longitudinal, and non-experimental research design. Likewise, the development and analysis of results was carried out with secondary data obtained from institutions such as: Central Reserve Bank of Peru, Veritrade and the Ministry of Production. After data collection, these are processed in the SPSS statistical tool, using the Multiple Linear Regression Model as proposed in the thesis of Martínez & Pinedo (2019). Based on the research questions, it was concluded that the most relevant variables that influenced exports of the national subheading 03.04.42.00.00 to the United States are FOB Price and Exchange Rate. / Tesis

Los polos de algodón son uno de los principales productos con mayor exportación del sector textil debido a la calidad de su confección y fino acabado. El Perú, desde el 2009, cuenta con un acuerdo promocional comercial con EE.UU., principal importador de polos de algodón peruano, sin embargo las exportaciones a dicho destino no han tenido el crecimiento esperado. Por lo cual, la presente investigación tiene la finalidad de identificar si las reglas de origen negociadas en el APC Perú- EE.UU. son un condicionante en la competitividad de las exportaciones de polos de algodón, considerando el periodo de 10 años desde la entrada en vigencia de dicho acuerdo. Para llevar a cabo la investigación, se ha revisado los antecedentes históricos previos al APC, las reglas de origen y las reglas específicas, para tener un mejor panorama de la situación del problema, asimismo se realizó un análisis situacional global, regional y nacional. La presente es una investigación con enfoque cualitativo que recolecta los datos de forma primaria directamente de los principales actores de las exportaciones de polos de algodón hacia EE.UU., mediante entrevistas, de las cuales se obtuvo como resultado que si bien es cierto que las reglas de origen establecidas en el APC Perú – EE.UU., exigen el uso de hilado originario de una de las partes de los países miembros, y de cierta manera condiciona la competitividad, sin embargo es un punto que los exportadores pueden y han venido manejando desde antes de la entrada en vigencia del APC. / T- shirts cotton are one of the main products of the textiles market due to the quality of their clothing and use of fine raw materials Since 2009, Peru has had a commercial promotional agreement with the United States, the main importer of Peruvian t-shirts cotton, however, exports to that destination have not had the expected growth. Therefore, this research aims to identify whether the rules of origin negotiated in the Peru-US APC are a determining factor in the competitiveness to exports of t-shirts cotton, considering the 10-year period from entry into force mentioned agreement to carry out the research, the historical antecedents prior to the APC, the rules of origin and the specific rules have been reviewed to have a better overview of the problem situation, as well as a global, regional and national situational analysis. This is a research with a qualitative approach that collects data primarily directly from the main exporter of t-shirts cotton to the United States, through interviews, from which it was obtained as a result that the rules of origin established in the APC Peru - USA, require the use of yarn originating from one of the parts of the member countries, and in a certain way conditions competitiveness, however it is a point that exporters have already been considering since before entry into force of the APC. / Tesis

The main objective of this paper is to equip the trade policy analyst with an appropriate method of seasonally adjusting trade data with weekly observations. To that end, a structural time series model containing a trend, seasonal and irregular component is specified. The seasonal component is represented by a time-varying periodic spline. Casting the model in state-space form enables time-varying parameters as well as use of the powerful Kalman filter for trend estimation. The resulting trend can then be interpreted as a seasonally adjusted series. A simulation exercise shows that the correct trend is identified with an average absolute error of 0.4 percent. An application to Swedish imports during 2017-2021 shows that the model produces a reasonable trend estimate when applied in 'real-time' and that its application is preferred to smoothing the series using a simple moving average.

This study critically explores the link between internationalisation theories and outward foreign direct investment (FDI) – a linkage which is well documented in the literature. Numerous studies have established that the internationalisation process recognises both firm- and market-specific aspects, which greatly determine the direction of outward FDI in terms of volume and pattern. In this interaction, path dependency is determined by the intensity of overlapping aspects or linkages, from firm-level heterogeneity and host market aspects that direct investment patterns in terms of the latter, to the volumes of firm-level adjustments. Firm-level heterogeneity comprises those traits, which enable an individual firm to make an investment decision, select a market-entry strategy and create the competitive advantages that will sustain its investments. Macro-level or country-specific aspects encompass those traits or characteristics of host markets, which encourage FDI on the part of multinational enterprises (MNEs). Most studies overlook the path dependency of country- and firm-specific aspects, which are crucial to the internationalisation processes of international business, economics and trade. Academic studies either focus on macro- or micro-level aspects, without paying specific attention to the path dependency of expansion strategies. The present study attempts to fill these gaps in the existing body of knowledge, by investigating international business in these contexts. The rationale for undertaking this study was two-fold: first, FDI holds proven benefits for host markets, which include economic growth, industry spillover, human capital development and transitory tacit knowledge. From a firm-level perspective, outward FDI largely enhances the capacity of MNEs, prompting an increase in asset accumulation, market share and human capital development, the more efficient utilisation of resources and return on equity. In this study, an argument is presented for measuring the variables of both firm- and market-specific aspects, since most existing studies in this genre focus either on micro- or macro-level determinants, or totally overlook the importance of linkages. Second, no documented research has investigated the path dependency of expansion strategies, especially in Africa. Crucially, the importance of path dependency of South Africa’s outward investment has not been documented either. Further, existing evidence on the role the path dependency of expansion strategies plays in outward FDI are scarce, with even fewer studies following a sectorial approach. This study attempts to fill these academic research gaps by reflecting both firm- and market-level data from various sources for the period 1995–2015, using panel dynamic regression models. The study found that the linkages between firm heterogeneity (firm-level evidence) and market-level aspects create a path dependency of expansion strategies. MNEs adopt either joint ventures or wholly owned subsidiaries (or both) as market-entry strategies, but the decision is informed by the intensity of those firm heterogeneity aspects that allow them to exploit opportunities and mitigate risk in host markets. Notably, the intensity of path dependency seemingly varies from one industrial segment to the next. The impulse response approach delivered evidence that one standard deviation shock of firm-specific variables led to a moderate improvement in firm-level capacities in the short run, but a significant improvement in the long run. The same result was recorded for market-level aspects, with the intensity of the results varying from one industry to the next. The causality test attempted to explore the causal relationship between the study variables in both firm- and market-level aspects. Empirical evidence from the study indicates that the size of the firm and its capacity to utilise its resources efficiently, influence their investment in host markets. As regards market-specific aspects, the size of the economy, levels of industry and trade openness were found to have a causal effect on the inflow of FDI in host markets. The intensity of causal aspects was also found to vary from one industry to the next, due to variations in firm-level heterogeneity and their linkage in terms of aspects related to the host market. In sum, this study complements existing material on the subject of international business. / Iingcamango zezokwamazwe ngamazwe kunye notyalo-mali oluthe ngqo lwangaphandle: Umcimbi weenkampani zoMzantsi Afrika ezinamazwe ngamazwe Olu phononongo luphicotha ikhonkco phakathi kweengcingane zamazwe ngamazwe kunye notyalo-mali ngokuthe ngqo oluphuma ngaphandle kumazwe asemzini (i-FDI) –indibaniselo ebhalwe kakuhle kwimiqulu yoncwadi. Izifundo ezininzi ezenziweyo ziye zaqinisekisa ukuba inkqubo yamazwe ngamazwe iyazamkela zombini inkampani- kunye nemiba ekhethekileyo yemarike, ezihlola kakhulukazi imikhombandlela (izikhokelo) ye-FDI yangaphandle ngokomthamo kunye nephatheni. Kule ntsebenziswano, indlela yokuxhomekeka ifunyanwa ngobungakanani bezinto ezisebenzelelanayo/ezingenanayo okanye izenzo zokuhlangana, ukusuka kwiintlobo-ntlobo zamanqanaba enkampani kunye neemfuno zabasingathe imicimbi yeendawo zokuthengisa (iimarike) iimpahla ezilawula iiphatheni zotyalo-imali ngokweyokugqibela, kwimilinganiselo yokulungelelaniswa kwenqanaba lwenkampani. Iintlobo-ntlobo zamanqanaba enkampani ziquka ezo mpawu, ezenza inkampani nganye yenze isigqibo sotyalo-mali, ikhethe isicwangciso sokungeniswa kwimarike kwaye siyile amathuba amahle okhuphiswano aya kugcina utyalo-mali. Inqanaba eliphezulu okanye iinkalo ezithile zelizwe zibandakanya ezo zimo okanye iimpawu zeemarike ezamkelekileyo, ezikhuthaza i-FDI kwiinkampani zamazwe ngamazwe (i-MNEs). Uninzi lwezifundo aziyiniki ngqalelo indlela yokuxhomekeka yelizwe kwimicimbi ekhethekileyo nebalulekileyo yenkampani kwiinkqubo zangokwamazwe oshishino lwamazwe ngamazwe, uqoqosho norhwebo. Uphando lwemfundo ephakamileyo lugxininisa kwiinkcukacha ezikwinqanaba eliphezulu okanye eliphantsi ngokunganiki ngqalelo kwindlela yokuxhomekeka yeendlela zokwandisa. Uphononongo lwangoku luzama ukuvala izikhewu/izikroba kulwazi olukhoyo., ngokuphanda ishishini lwamazwe ngamazwe kule meko. Ingqiqo ekwenzeni olu phando yahlulwe kubini: okokuqala, i-FDI inenzuzo eqinisekisiweyo kwabasingethe iimarike, ezibandakanya ukukhula koqoqosho, ukuchuma kwamashishini, ukuphuhliswa kwezakhono zabantu kunye nolwazi oludlulileyo lwezakhono. Ngakwicala lenqanaba lenkampani, i-FDI yangaphandle iphakamisa amandla e-MNE, ikhawulezisa ukunyusa uqokelelo lwempahla, isabelo semarike kunye nophuhliso lwabantu, ukusetyenziswa ngokufanelekileyo kwezixhobo kunye nokubuyela kubulungisa bokulingana. Kolu phononongo, impikiswano inikezelwe ukulinganisa iinguqu zombini yenkampani- kunye nemimiselo ethile yemarike, njengoko olunye uphando oluninzi olwenziweyo kolu hlobo lugxininisa koonobangela abakwizinga elisezantsi okanye eliphezulu, okanye kunganikwa ngqalelo tu kukubaluleka kwezenzo zokudibana / zokunxibelelana. Okwesibini, akukho phando lubhaliweyo oluphande indlela yokuxhomekeka kweendlela zokwandisa, ngakumbi e-Afrika. Ngokusesikweni, ukubaluleka kwendlela yokuxhomekeka yotyalo-mali lwangaphandle eMzantsi Afrika alukaze nalo lubhalwe phantsi. Ukongezelela, ubungqina obukhoyo kwindima yendlela yokuxhomekeka yeendlela zokwandisa kwi-FDI yangaphandle zinqabile, kwakunye nezifundo ezimbalwa ezilandela indlela yamacandelo. Olu phononongo luzama ukuzalisa izikroba zophando zemfundo ephakamileyo ngokuzibonakalisa zombini inkampani- kunye nedatha yamanqanaba emarike avela kwimithombo eyahlukeneyo yexesha lowe-1995-2015, usebenzisa iimodeli zepaneli ezinamandla zokubuy’umva. Uphononongo lufumanise ukuba ukudibana phakathi kweentlobo-ntlobo zenkampani (ubungqina bezinga lenkampani) kunye nemilinganiselo yezinga lemarike zidala indlela yoxhomekeko yeendlela zokukhula. Ii-MNE zamkela intsebenziswano ngokuhlangeneyo okanye bazibambele ngokwabo ngokupheleleyo (okanye zombini) njengeendlela zokungena kwimarike, kodwa isigqibo siphenjelelwa bubungakanani beentlobo-ntlobo zemicimbi yenkampani evumela ukuba baxhaphaze amathuba kwaye banciphise umngcipheko kwiimarike zenkampani. Ngokuphawulekayo, ubukhulu bokuxhomekeka wendlela yokuxhomekeka kukhangeleka kusahluka ukusuka kwicandelo elinye lozoshishino ukuya kwelinye elilandelayo. Indlela yokuphendula ngokungxama inikezele ubungqina bokuba ukuphazamiseka okusesikweni kwizinto eziguquguqukayo zenkampani ezikhethekileyo zikhokelele ekuphuculeni okusezingeni eliphakathi kwinqanaba kubungakanani benqanaba lenkampani ngexeshana, kodwa ukuphuculwa okubonakalayo nokubalulekileyo ekuhambeni kwexesha. Isiphumo esifanayo sabhalwa phantsi kwiinkalo zemarike, nobukhulu beziphumo zohluka ukusuka kwelinye ishishini ukuya kwelinye. Uvavanyo lwamaxesha athile luzame ukuphonononga ubudlelwane bamaxesha athile phakathi kwezifundo zezinto eziguquguqukayo kwiinkalo zombini inkampani –kunye nenqanaba lemarike/ neemeko zemarike. Ubungqina bamava obuvela kuphando lubonisa ukuba ubungakanani benkampani kunye namandla okusebenzisa uvimba wezixhobo ngokufanelekileyo, ziphembelela utyalo-mali kwiimarike zenkampani. Ngokubhekiselele kwimimandla ethile yemarike, ubungakanani boqoqosho, amazinga oshishino kunye nokuvuleka kwezorhwebo kufunyaniswe ukuba kunefuthe elenzekayo ngamaxesha athile ekungeneni kwe-FDI kubasingathi beemarike. Ubungakanani bemicimbi eyenzeka ngamaxesha athile yafunyanwa kwakhona ukuba yohlukile ukusuka kwelinye ishishini ukuya kwelinye, ngenxa yeenguqu kwiintlobo-ntlobo zeamanqanaba enkampani kunye nokudibana kwabo ngokwemiba enxulumene nabasingethe imarike. Kafutshane esi sifundo, sigcwalisa izixhobo ezikhoyo kwisihloko sezoshishino lamazwe ngamazwe. / Diteori tša peyomaemong a boditšhabatšhaba le peeletšothwii ye e tšwago dinageng tša ka ntle: Seemo sa mabapi le difeme tša ka Afrika Borwa tše di tšwago dinageng di šele Dinyakišišo tše di utolla ka tsinkelo kgokagano gareng ga diteori tša peyomaemong a boditšhabatšhaba le peeletšothwii ye e tšwago dinageng tša ka ntle (FDI) – e lego kgokagano yeo go ngwadilwego ka yona kudu ka dingwalweng. Dinyakišišo tše mmalwa di utollotše gore tshepedišo ya go bea maemong a boditšhabatšhaba e lemoga bobedi dilo tša difeme le tše di amanago le difeme, tšeo di laolago kudu fao FDI ya dinaga tša ka ntle e lebilego gona mabapi le bontši le mokgwa. Ka tirišanong ye, go tšea diphetho go ya ka maemo go laolwa ke bontši bja dilo tšeo di dirwago ka nako e tee goba dikamano, go tloga go go farologanya ditšweletšwa ka femeng le dilo tša mmaraka wa ka nageng tšeo di laolago mekgwa ya dipeeletšo mabapi le go ya ka mmaraka wa ka nageng, go ya go mehuta ye mentši ya dipeakanyo tša ka femeng. Go farologanya ditšweletšwa ka femeng go bopilwe ke diphetogo tše, tšeo di kgontšhago feme ye itšego go tšea sephetho sa mabapi le peeletšo, go kgetha maano a go tsena ka mmarakeng le go hlama menyetla ye mekaone yeo e tlago tšwetša pele peeletšo ya yona. Dikokwane tša ekonomi ye kgolo goba tša ka nageng di akaretša diphetogo tšeo goba dipharologantšhi tša mebaraka ya ka nageng, tšeo di hlohleletšago FDI ka karolong ya dikgwebo tša dinaga tša ka ntle (di-MNE). Dinyakišišo tše ntši di hlokomologile go tšea diphetho go ya ka maemo ga naga le ga dilo tša ka femeng ye itšego, tšeo di lego bohlokwa go tshepedišo ya peyomaemong a boditšhabatšhaba ya dikgwebo tša boditšhabatšhaba, diekonomi le kgwebišano. Dinyakišišo tša dirutegi di ka be di lebeletše kudu dilo tša ekonomi ye kgolo goba tša ye nnyane, ka ntle le go lebiša šedi ye kgolo go go tšea diphetho go ya ka maemo a boditšhabatšhaba ga maano a katološo. Dinyakišišo tše di leka go tlatša dikgoba tše ka tsebo ye e lego gona, ka go nyakišiša dikgwebo tša boditšhabatšhaba ka maemong a. Maikemišetšo a go dira dinyakišišo tše e bile a mabedi: sa mathomo, FDI e na le dikholego tšeo di tiišeditšwego go mebaraka ya ka dinageng, tšeo di akaretšago kgolo ya ekonomi, khuetšano ya diintasteri, tlhabollo ya bokgoni bja bašomi le phetišetšo ya tsebo ye e lego nyanyeng. Go ya ka maemong a difeme, FDI ye e tšwago dinageng tša ka ntle e godiša bokgoni bja di- MNE, ya hlohleletša koketšego ya khwetšo ya dithoto, ya kabelano ya mmaraka le ya tlhabollo ya bokgoni bja bašomi, tšhomišo ye kaone kudu ya methopo le go hwetša poelo go dikabelano. Ka mo dinyakišišong tše, go lagišwa ntlha ya go ela diphapano tša bobedi dilo tša ka femeng le tša ka mmarakeng, ka ge bontši bja dinyakišišo tše di lego gona ka mo lekaleng le la dinyakišišo di lebeletše kudu tšeo di laolago ekonomi ye nnyane goba ye kgolo goba tšeo di hlokomologago ka botlalo bohlokwa bja dikgokagano. Sa bobedi, ga go dinyakišišo tšeo di ngwadilwego tšeo di nyakišišitšego go tšea diphetho go ya ka maemo ga maano a katološo, kudukudu ka Afrika. Se bohlokwa ke gore, bohlokwa bja go tšea diphetho go ya ka maemo ga peeletšo ya Afrika Borwa ya dinaga tša ka ntle ga se gwa ngwalwa le ge go le bjale. Godimo ga fao, bohlatse bjo bo lego gona ka ga mošomo wa go tšea diphetho go ya ka maemo fao go ralokago ka ga maano a katološo ka go FDI ya dinaga tša ka ntle e se bjo bontši, gomme go na le dinyakišišo tše mmalwa go latela mokgwa wo o lebeletšego makala. Dinyakišišo tše di leka go tlatša dikgoba tše tša dinyakišišo tša dirutegi ka go laetša tshedimošo ya bobedi ka maemong a difeme le ka mebarakeng go tšwa methopong ya mehutahuta go tloga ka mengwaga ya 1995–2015, ka go šomiša mekgwa ya kakanyo ya dikamano ye e fetogago. Dinyakišišo di hweditše gore dikamano gareng ga go farologanya ditšweletšwa (bohlatse bja ka maemong a difeme) le dilo tša maemo a ka mmarakeng di hlola go tšea diphetho go ya ka maemo ga maano a katološo. Di-MNE di šomiša masolo a mohlakanelwa goba ikhamphani tša ka fasana tšeo di laolwago ka botlalo (goba ka bobedi) bjalo ka maano a go tsena ka mmarakeng, eupša sephetho se laolwa ke bontši bja dilo tšeo tša go farologanya ditšweletšwa tšeo di di dumelelago go nyaka dibaka le go fokotša kotsi ka mebarakeng ya ka nageng. Seo se lemogilwego ke gore, bontši bja go tšea diphetho go ya ka maemo go bonala go fapane go ya ka karolo ya intasteri go ya go ye nngwe. Mokgwa wa go arabela kgoketšo wo o hlagišitšwego ka bohlatseng bja gore phapogo ya tlwaelo ya diphapano tša ka femeng e feleleditše ka kaonafalo ya magareng ya bokgoni bja difeme lebakeng le lekopana, eupša ka kaonafalo ye kgolo mo lebakeng le letelele. Dipoelo tše di swanago di begilwe ka go dilo tša maemo a ka mmarakeng, gomme bontši bja dipoelo tša fapana go ya ka diintasteri. Teko ya mathata yeo e bego e leka go utolla kamano ya tšeo di bakago se gareng ga phapano ya dinyakišišo ka go bobedi ka dilo tša ka femeng le tša ka mmarakeng. Bohlatse bja maitemogelo go tšwa ka mo dinyakišišong bo laetša gore bogolo bja feme le bokgoni bja yona bja go šomiša methopo ya yona gabotse ntle le mathata, di huetša peeletšo ya yona ka mebarakeng ya ka nageng. Mabapi le dilo tša ka mmarakeng, bogolo bja ekonomi, maemo a intasteri le go hloka sephiri ka kgwebišanong di bonwe di na le seabe sa go baka seemo go tseneng ga FDI ka mebarakeng ya ka nageng. Bontši bja dilo tše di bakago maemo go hweditšwe gape gore go fapana go ya ka diintasteri, ka lebaka la diphapano ka go farologanyo ya ditšweletšwa ka difemeng le kamano ya tšona mabapi le dilo tšeo di amanago le mmaraka wa ka nageng. Bjalo ka kakaretšo, dinyakišišo tše di tlaleletša dingwalwa tšeo di lego gona ka ga hlogotaba ya dikgwebo tša boditšhabatšhaba. / Business Management / D. Phil. (Business Management)

El presente trabajo analiza la existencia de un vínculo entre el crédito privado empleado como proxy de desarrollo financiero y el comercio exterior, para ello usa un panel de datos de 9 años para 94 países. Los resultados obtenidos mediante el método generalizado de momento revelan que el crédito tiene un efecto positivo y significativo en la apertura comercial. Además, se encuentra una relación no lineal entre el crédito privado y el comercio internacional el cual demuestra que cuando los países superan cierto umbral crediticio el efecto del crédito en la apertura comercial deja de ser eficiente. Finalmente, se confirma un efecto diferenciado y adicional del crédito privado en la apertura comercial para países desarrollados. No obstante, se encuentra que los países en desarrollo, con sistemas financieros en progreso, tienen una brecha mayor para su crecimiento a diferencia de los países desarrollados con sistemas financieros avanzados. Dichos resultados tienen relevancia económica en tanto contribuyen a formular políticas económicas que incrementan la cantidad y calidad de crédito privado con el fin de mantener un nivel considerable de comercio exterior lo que contribuirá positivamente al producto bruto interno de cada país. / This paper analyzes the existence of a possible link between private credit used as a proxy for financial development and foreign trade in a nine-year data panel for ninety-four countries. The results obtained using the generalized method of moments reveal that credit has a positive and significant effect on trade openness. Furthermore, there is a non-linear relationship between private credit and international trade, which shows that when countries exceed a certain credit threshold, the effect of credit on trade liberalization ceases to be efficient. Finally, a differentiated and additional effect of private credit on trade openness for developed countries was confirmed. However, it is found that developing countries with financial systems in progress have a greater gap for their growth than developed countries with advanced financial systems. These results are economically relevant as they contribute to a form of economic policies that increase the quantity and quality of private credit in order to maintain a considerable level of foreign trade, which contribute positively to each country's gross domestic product. / Trabajo de investigación

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La presente investigación busca determinar y comparar cuales han sido los factores críticos que influenciaron en las exportaciones de arándanos frescos de Perú y Chile a los Estados Unidos, en el periodo 2012 - 2018. En el primer capítulo, se abordarán los antecedentes de la investigación, las bases teóricas de las estrategias de internacionalización, del comercio internacional, del producto elegido y los factores críticos identificados. Además, de la justificación teórica y práctica de la investigación. En el segundo capítulo, se desarrollará el plan de investigación se muestra la situación problemática, las hipótesis y los objetivos generales y específicos en ambos. Adicional a ello, se indicará la relevancia que tiene este estudio. En el tercer capítulo, se explicará la metodología utilizada, diseño aplicado, definición de las variables, tamaño de población y muestra, mediante los instrumentos metodológico escogidos para el recojo de la investigación. También, se hace un recuento de los aspectos éticos que involucran la información. En el cuarto capítulo, se muestra la información relacionada a cómo se desarrollan los cuatro factores críticos en estudio para Perú y Chile; así como, la aplicación de las herramientas escogidas para nuestra investigación, como las entrevistas a profundidad y las encuestas realizadas. En el quinto capítulo, se presenta los hallazgos y resultados de la investigación en relación con la información recopilada cualitativa (entrevistas) y cuantitativa (encuestas) realizadas a los especialistas. Se analiza y evalúa la información obtenida para probar que los factores críticos que se han identificado en el presente trabajo, influyeron en las exportaciones en el período analizado, tanto para el mercado chileno como para el peruano. Finalmente, se muestran las conclusiones y recomendaciones de la investigación realizada, respecto a los factores críticos que influyeron en las exportaciones de arándanos a los Estados Unidos, para luego determinar si se cumplieron los objetivos de la investigación y la hipótesis planteadas. / The present investigation seeks to determine and compare the critical factors that influenced the exports of fresh blueberries from Peru and Chile to the United States, in the period 2012 - 2018. In the first chapter, the research background, the theoretical basis of internationalization strategies, international trade, the chosen product and the critical factors identified will be addressed. In addition, the theoretical and practical justification of research. In the second chapter, the research plan will be developed showing the problematic situation, the hypotheses and the general and specific objectives in both. Additionally, the relevance of this study will be indicated. In the third chapter, the methodology used, applied design, definition of the variables, population size and sample will be explained, using the methodological instruments chosen to collect the research. Also, an account is made of the ethical aspects that involve the information. In the fourth chapter, information related to how the four critical factors under study for Peru and Chile are developed; as well as the application of the tools chosen for our research, such as in-depth interviews and surveys. In the fifth chapter, the research findings and results are presented in relation to the qualitative (interviews) and quantitative (surveys) information collected from specialists. The information obtained is analyzed and evaluated to prove that the critical factors that have been identified in this work, influenced exports during the period analyzed, both for the Chilean and Peruvian markets. Finally, the conclusions and recommendations of the research carried out are shown, regarding the critical factors that influenced blueberry exports to United States, and then determine whether the objectives of the investigation and the hypothesis planted were met. / Tesis

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(経済学) / 甲第18753号 / 経博第504号 / 新制||経||272(附属図書館) / 31704 / 京都大学大学院経済学研究科経済学専攻 / (主査)教授 柴田 章久, 教授 佐々木 啓明, 教授 神事 直人 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Economics / Kyoto University / DGAM

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