Cette recherche étudie l’impact de la distance sur le choix du mode d’entrée à l’étranger. La revue de la littérature révèle l’intérêt accordé au concept de distance et plus précisément aux dimensions psychique et culturelle de la distance. Toutefois, ce concept fait objet de controverses concernant sa conceptualisation et son opérationnalisation. Les études antérieures ont tenté d’expliquer le choix du mode d’entrée par la distance culturelle. Les résultats s’avèrent hétérogènes et peu concluants. Ce travail tente d’apporter des réponses et d’éclaircir l’ambiguïté identifiée dans la littérature en adoptant une approche multidimensionnelle de la distance. Fondée sur la grille d’analyse proposée par Ghemawat (2001), cette recherche développe des hypothèses relatives aux différentes dimensions de la distance (distances culturelle, administrative, géographique, économique). Ces hypothèses sont testées sur un échantillon de 203 opérations de rapprochement effectuées par des entreprises françaises avec des partenaires localisés dans le monde entier. Les résultats de l’étude empirique montrent que la distance nationale influence le choix du mode de rapprochement (coopération versus fusion-acquisition). Ils révèlent que, dans le cas des entreprises françaises, les dimensions administrative et économique jouent un rôle prépondérant lors du choix du mode de rapprochement à l’étranger, contrairement aux distances culturelle et géographique. / This research examines the impact of distance on the choice of foreign market entry modes. The literature review highlights the interest given to the concept of distance and more specifically to psychic and cultural dimensions of distance. Nonetheless, this concept is controversial regarding its conceptualization and operationalization. Previous studies have sought to explain the choice of entry mode mainly by cultural distance. The results are heterogeneous and inconclusive. This research attempts to provide answers and clarification to the ambiguity identified in the literature by adopting a multidimensional approach to distance. Based on the framework proposed by Ghemawat (2001), this study develops several hypotheses concerning the different dimensions of distance (cultural, administrative, geographic and economic distances). These hypotheses are tested on a sample of 203 interfirm linkages conducted by French companies with partners located around the world. The results of the empirical study show that the national distance influences the choice of alliance mode (cooperation versus merger-acquisition). In the case of French companies, the findings indicate that administrative and economic dimensions play an essential role in the choice of foreign market alliance mode, contrary to cultural and geographic distances.

This research aims towards gaining a deeper understanding in how a manager’s previous experience influence which foreign entry mode chosen by a Swedish SME, where the manager acts as the decision-maker. Interviews were held with managers from different Swedish firms in order to collect empirical data that thereafter were analysed. In order to get a deeper understanding as to how the experience influenced the choice of entry mode, a qualitative research were implicated. The theory is based upon a conceptual framework where the managers previous experience is divided into educational background, international experience and position tenure. Furthermore, the conceptual framework includes the Uppsala Model, which the thesis is based upon, and entry modes as this is where focus lays. From the conceptual framework, the empirical findings and analysis is structured as a combined chapter. Based on the theory, empirical findings and analysis, a conclusion is presented, with the aim of answering the research question and also to fill the research gap regarding how a manager’s previous experience influence the choice of entry mode for Swedish SMEs. That a manager’s previous experience influenced was understood, however, that international experience influenced the choice to a higher extent is presented. An additional main implication is how the manager could be placed in line with the Uppsala Model, where the choice of entry modes can vary and incrementally shift to another entry mode as a manager gain experiential knowledge.

Since the opening of formerly closed markets in Eastern Europe and China in the early 1990s, numerous firms have sought to capture the growth opportunities prevailing in the virgin but institutionally distant business networks in these countries. I claim that the entry process into an institutionally distant business network has been realised when the entering firm has reached an insidership position in the network. To advance this idea, the thesis introduces the overlooked medium-sized multinational exporter (MME) and answers the following overarching research questions: (I) how do MMEs establish insidership positions in institutionally distant business networks, and (II) what critical abilities are developed by MMEs in the process of entering an institutionally distant business network? To answer these questions, qualitative and quantitative methods have sequentially been mixed to first give an in-depth understanding of the empirical field, and second to verify and generalise some of the most central tentative findings. Empirically, the study reports from a case study of eight firms in the Baltic Sea Region and from an on-site survey of 203 Swedish firms with experience of entries in Eastern Europe and/or China. Five individual essays are presented—all designed to reflect different aspects of the institutionally distant network entry process. The findings are condensed in the cover of the thesis, where it is claimed that an insidership position is reached through three main phases: the Scouting phase, the Qualifying phase and the Shielding phase. Furthermore, it is found that that the most critical abilities developed through the institutionally distant network entry process is local experience-based knowledge of high specificity. It is shown that previous experiences, generated in different business networks in mature markets, are not useful in the network entry process in immature markets. As a consequence, there is reason to believe that the entering firm needs to develop unlearning abilities to replace obsolete or misleading experience.

Hormis l'intérêt croissant que suscitent l'entrepreneuriat international et l'entrepreneuriat organisationnel comme nouvelles voies de réflexion, la recherche académique dans les deux champs ne semble pas suffisamment insister sur les processus et les dynamiques sous- jacentes de l'internationalisation rapide des PME et de la formation de leurs orientations entrepreneuriales (OE). La présente recherche se donne comme objectif de proposer une compréhension systémique des processus entrepreneuriaux de la PME à internationalisation rapide en plaçant la logique de identification des opportunités d'exportation au cœur de notre réflexion. Le travail s'achèvera par une modélisation qualitative expliquant le phénomène en question.La première partie de cette thèse est consacrée aux fondements théoriques de la recherche, abordant les concepts clés de notre cadre conceptuel. La deuxième partie aborde empiriquement la problématique de la recherche. Après une première analyse de contextualisation, sont présentés et analysés les résultats d'une étude de cas multiples, réalisées au sein de six jeunes PME exportatrices marocaines du secteur agro-industriel.La recherche met en évidence des vecteurs internes (connaissances, expériences et capital social) et des contraintes externes (nature de l'activité et caractéristiques du marché local) comme déterminants de l'internationalisation rapide des PME étudiées. Plus important encore, deux configurations différentes de l'OE sont décrites en relation avec deux logiques distinctes de identification des opportunités d'exportation (une logique de type causale et une autre de type effectuale). / Despite the growing interest in international entrepreneurship and organizational entrepreneurship as new ways of thinking, academic research in both fields does not seem sufficiently emphasize the underlying processes and dynamics of the accelerated internationalization of SMEs and the formation of their entrepreneurial orientation (EO). This research aims to provide a systemic understanding of entrepreneurial processes of the SMEs by placing the logic of determining export opportunities at the heart of our thinking. The work will conclude by a qualitative model explaining the phenomenon in question.The first part of this thesis is devoted to the theoretical foundations of research, addressing key concepts of our conceptual framework. The second part addresses the problem of empirical research. After an initial work of contextualization, are presented and analyzed the results of a multiple case study, conducted in six young Moroccan exporting SMEs in the agro-industrial sector.The research highlights the internal vectors (knowledge, experience and social capital) and external constraints (nature of the activity and the local market characteristics) as determinants of the accelerated internationalization of young SMEs studied. More importantly, two different configurations of the EO dimensions are described in relation with two distinct logics of determining export opportunities (causal logic vs effectuale logic).

Cette thèse évalue dans quelle mesure l’intégration de la Chine dansl’économie capitaliste mondiale a été associée à la détérioration du pouvoir de négociation dutravail vis-à-vis du capital dans les pays développés, exprimée par la stagnation des salairesréels et la détérioration des conditions de travail. Nous proposons une interprétation fondéesur la mondialisation de l’armée de réserve industrielle chinoise, comme effet de l’allianceentre l’État chinois et le capital des pays développés sous sa forme productive. D’une part,nous analysons la formation de l’armée industrielle de réserve chinoise qui a sous-tendu leprocessus de prolétarisation dans le pays comme conséquences de l’action de l’État-parti,réalisée à travers l’accumulation primitive. D’autre part, nous expliquons comment le fait quele capital des pays développés ait un accès à cette armée industrielle de réserve a augmenté laprofitabilité à travers de : la réduction des coûts unitaires du travail, et en rendant l’arméeindustrielle de réserve chinoise globale, décalant le rapport de force domestique au détrimentdu travail. Nous considérons l’interaction entre l’effet «termes de l’échange» etl’affaiblissement du pouvoir de négociation des travailleurs sur les salaires réels dans les paysdéveloppés. La mondialisation de l’armée industrielle de réserve chinoise a fourni la massecritique pour briser la connexion historique entre la production industrielle et les marchés debiens de consommation dans les pays développés, qui fournissaient la base matérielle surlaquelle se cristallisait les compromis institutionnels entre croissance de la productivité et dessalaires réels. / The present thesis assesses how China’s integration in the globalcapitalist economy has been associated with the deterioration of labor position vis-à-viscapital in advanced economies expressed in stagnant real wages and worsening workingconditions. We propose an interpretation grounded on the globalization of China’s vastindustrial reserve army as a byproduct of the alliance between the Chinese state and advancedcountries’ capitals in their productive form. On the one hand, we discuss the formation ofChina’s industrial reserve army which has underpinned the process of proletarianization in thecountry as creatures of the party-state achieved through means of primitive accumulation. Onthe other hand, we discuss how advanced countries’ capitals access to this vast reserveindustrial reserve army in preferred terms, actively enabled by the Chinese party-state, hasincreased profitability through two crucial outcomes, by immediate and drastically reducingunit labor costs and by making China’s industrial reserve army global, tilting the balance ofpower back home towards capital. We then consider the interplay of the opposite effects ofthese two outcomes – the ‘terms of trade effect’ and the weakening of laborers’ bargainingpower – over real wages and working conditions in advanced countries. We claim that theglobalization of China’s vast industrial reserve army has provided critical mass to break thehistorical connection between industrial production and consumer markets in advancedcountries that provided the material basis in which workers were able to conquer theconstruction of institutional links between productivity and real wage growth. / O objetivo da presente tese é estudar como a integração da China na economia capitalista global seassociada à deterioração da posição do trabalho em relação ao capital em economias desenvolvidas,expressa pela estagnação do salário real e piora das condições de trabalho. Ao negar a narrativaeconômica dominante que relaciona esses dois fatores por meio do modelo Heckscher-Ohlin-Samuelson e ao teorema da equalização dos preços dos fatores de produção, nós propomosuma interpretação fundamentada de que o vasto exército de reserva da China globalizadarepresenta um subproduto da aliança entre o Estado Chinês e o capital produtivo daseconomias desenvolvidas. Construímos essa interpretação através de dois momentosanalíticos que contemplam tanto as dimensões para dentro e como para fora da globalizaçãodo exército industrial de reserva, especialmente, como ele foi formado pelo estado Chinês ecomo foi o seu acesso pelo capital produtivo dos países desenvolvidos, no contexto daglobalização neoliberal, promovida pela rearticulação da divisão internacional do trabalho,que minou as condições materiais que historicamente colocaram o trabalho, nos paísescentrais, numa posição melhor em relação ao capital em oposição ao trabalho na periferia. Poroutro lado, discutimos a formação do exército de reserva industrial da China, que tem apoiadoo processo de proletarização no país como criaturas do partido-estado alcançado por meio deacumulação primitiva. Afirmamos que os salários baixos e estagnados dos trabalhadores nãoqualificados chineses, que prevaleceram na década de 1990 até meados dos anos 2000, nocerne da transformação da China na fábrica do mundo, resultou não só do desmantelamentodas comunas e danweis, mas também na alienação dos camponeses e no aumento doexcedente de produção dos camponeses pelo estado, promovendo a estagnação da renda realna agricultura e impelindo os camponeses a seguir o rumo à proletarização, formando umgrande exército industrial de reserva. Mais adiante, discutimos como o capital dos paísesavançados acessou esse vasto exército industrial de reserva em termos preferenciais,ativamente habilitado pelo partido-estado chinês, aumentando a rentabilidade através de doisresultados cruciais, pela redução imediata e drástica dos custos unitários do trabalho e fazendoexército industrial de reserva da China uma arma global, inclinando a balança de poder devolta para casa do capital. Em seguida, abordamos a interação dos efeitos opostos desses doisresultados - os 'efeitos dos termos de troca "e do enfraquecimento do poder de negociação dostrabalhadores - sobre os salários reais e as condições de trabalho nos países desenvolvidos.Afirmamos que a globalização do vasto exército de reserva industrial da China tem oferecidouma massa crítica para quebrar a ligação histórica entre a produção industrial e os mercadosconsumidores nos países avançados, condição que forneceu a base material para que ostrabalhadores fossem capazes de conquistar vínculos institucionais entre a produtividade e ocrescimento real dos salários. Em contrapartida, à medida em que essa globalização, baseadana transformação dos camponeses chineses em espinha dorsal do exército industrial dereserva da economia global, houve um aumento dos conflitos de classe no interior da China eum rápido crescimento dos salários, além de mudanças institucionais a partir de meados dosanos 2000. Na medida em que essas conquistas minaram as bases que levaram o capital apromover a globalização do exército de reserva industrial da China, nós estudamos se aintegração da China na economia capitalista global, através do seu papel central nas cadeiasde eletrônica e TI, está mudando em direção à mão de obra mais intensiva e qualificada, o quepoderia colocar pressões baixistas sobre os salários dos trabalhadores qualificados nos paísesavançados, por meio do estudo de caso da indústria de semicondutores.

Ce travail veut apporter des éclairages sur la façon dont la ville d’aujourd’hui est conçue en revisitant à la fois les pratiques urbaines (approche néolibérale et approche par le risque). À travers l’étude comparative de deux quartiers d’Istanbul, Sarıgöl et Tozkoparan, désignés à risques et soumis à des projets de rénovation urbaine, nous avons analysé les objectifs des projets, leur contenu, les bénéficiaires de ces projets et les populations affectés. Sur quels motifs et réalités se basent les politiques publiques urbaines ? Comment les projets sont-ils légitimés par le risque ? Répondent-ils aux problèmes urbains et sociaux présents ? Occasionnent-ils de nouveaux problèmes sociaux ? Les constats établis sur les conséquences des pratiques de rénovation urbaine, nous ont poussé à nous intéresser aux enjeux sociaux émergeant des dynamiques urbaines conflictuelles. Comment les populations sont-elles ou seront-elles affectées par ces rénovations ? La réaction des habitants ? / This work aims to shed light on how the city of today is designed by revisiting both urban practices (neoliberal approach and risk approach). Through the comparative study of two districts in Istanbul, Sarıg.l and Tozkoparan, designated at risk and subject to urban renewal projects, we analysed the objectives of the projects, their content, the beneficiaries and affected populations. On what grounds and realities are urban public policies based ? How are projects legitimized by risk ? Do they respond to the urban and social problems ? Do they cause new social problems ? The findings on the consequences of urban renewal practices have led us to focus on social issues emerging from conflictual urban dynamics. How are populations affected or will they be affected by these renovations ? The reaction of the inhabitants ?

Universities, facing both pressures and opportunities created by globalisation, are currently seeking a way to reinforce their capabilities by enhancing their academic strength through internationalisation. In such a setting, the development of international partnerships has been increasingly recognised as a central strategy for the success of internationalisation. Understanding the increasing importance of international partnerships for universities, this study will attempt to understand what could make a successful partnership and identify which management approach is most likely to realise a successful international partnership between universities. A successful international partnership in this thesis is assumed to be the one that is able to function smoothly and effectively towards achieving the goals set by the partnership. This thesis argues that the best management approach for successful international partnerships is a phase- and principle-based management approach. This approach enables a partnership to facilitate the essential ‘phases’ of development and sustainable growth by embedding some critical principles into its management practices to facilitate those essential ‘phases’. This study proposes there are three essential phases and three critical principles. The three essential phases are ‘building a partnership’, ‘consolidation and catalysing maturity’ and ‘maintaining a positive cycle between growth and consolidation’. The three critical principles are accountability, transparency, and learning capacity. While discussing a phase- and principle-based management approach, this thesis develops the premise that an international university partnership is an organic and dynamic phenomenon and the success of an international partnership is underpinned by entrepreneurial culture. This thesis involves case studies with multiple universities from Japan, the United Kingdom, Belgium, Sweden, and Australia, engaging in different types of international partnerships. Through the case studies, this thesis explores whether existing universities consider the three phases and the three critical principles as important, and how they have developed and improved their management structures and processes to implement their international partnerships. To be more precise, two types of international university partnerships are studied, namely a partial and task-specific double degree programme (DDP) partnership between a Japanese university and its partners, which is an example of a standard management model, and a comprehensive and organised strategic alliance between multiple universities from different countries, which is an example of the best management model. Those two models are compared using the phase- and principle-based model as comparator criteria. International university partnership development in a Japanese context is another key theme. This thesis examines the state of international partnerships recently developed by Japanese universities. It makes a comparison of the current situation of Japanese universities using the best identified management model. At present, the most popular type of international partnership in Japanese higher education is that of a DDP, which is a basic and task-specific type of partnership. Many universities around the world are developing DDP partnerships. Such partnerships are therefore appropriate for a case study of a standard management approach. To examine the DDP partnerships developed by a Japanese university, this thesis focuses on the case of Kyushu University, Japan and its partners; the aim is to identify the strengths and weaknesses of a basic and task-specific partnership model with respect to current and future circumstances. This thesis studies the strategic alliance between Monash University and the University of Warwick for the best management approach. The Monash Warwick Alliance is an advanced comprehensive partnership with diverse projects involving wide range of stakeholders including researchers, educators, students, administrators, and outside stakeholders. Considering its broad range of scope and stakeholders, it could embrace greater complexity in terms of management, thereby more mature and sophisticated management structures and processes could be required. Based upon understanding the essential features of the best management approach, this thesis attempts to figure out whether and how the limitations of a partial and task-specific DDP partnership, could be rectified and provide recommendations for universities in Japan to aid the further advancement of their international partnership projects and the overall internationalisation of universities. Possible improvements suggest that their management structure should possess the capability to steer and coordinate a partnership by developing accountable management structures and implementing effective communication and information strategies, developing a vigorous system of quality and performance review, creating a mechanism to institutionalise learning, and integrating expertise in the management structures and processes.

Dans la quête des pays du Sud de moyens de développement économiques en vue d'améliorer le bien-être collectif de leurs populations, ces dernières décennies ont connu une concurrence accrue entre les pays en développement pour attirer le plus grand volume d'investissement directs étrangers. Cette concurrence est devenue de plus en plus acharnée "race to the bottom" en raison de la difficulté accrue d'obtention de crédits auprès d'organismes de financement internationaux. Les investissements directs étrangers (IDE) constituent non seulement des sources de financement mais aussi un transfert de technologie et de savoir-faire industriel vers leurs économies. Une question centrale dans cette thèse, que nous avons tenté d'examiner en profondeur de manières théorique et empirique, consiste à comprendre les mécanismes qui ont engendré le phénomène d'IDE et les facteurs qui l'encouragent. Parmi les nombreux pays en développement qui ont tenté de préparer un terrain attrayant pour les IDE, certains ont moins bien réussi. Ceci n'a pas empêché une deuxième vague de pays de se précipiter vers ce phénomène, convaincus que les IDE sont le moteur du développement. C'est là que vient notre deuxième question centrale où nous tentons d'établir un lien entre les IDE et la croissance économique. Notre travail empirique classe les pays en cinq zones régionales tout en mettant un accent particulier sur les pays du Maghreb et du Moyen Orient. Nous montrons que, pour être attrayant aux IDE, un pays devait être politiquement stable, doté d'infrastructures suffisantes, d'institutions efficaces et d'une population éduquée. Par ailleurs, il existe des biais spécifiques à certaines régions. La région du Maghreb et du Moyen Orient, par exemple, souffre d'un biais défavorable à l'accueil d'IDE. Nous tenterons d'expliquer et d'analyser les causes de ce biais. Concernant le lien IDE-Croissance, nous montrons, toutes choses étant égales par ailleurs, que les IDE ne commencent à avoir un effet positif sur la croissance qu'à partir d'un certain seuil de niveau de capital humain de la population. / The quest for progress towards economic development in the countries of the South has increased competition between these nations in the last two decades, as they each try to attract the largest volume of FDI. This competition has become a race to the bottom due to the increased difficulties in obtaining credit. Many developing countries have attempted to attract FDI. Some have been less successful than others, in this regard; however this did not prevent a second group of countries undertaking the same policy. The decision makers seem to be convinced that FDI is the engine of development and the main question in this thesis is to better understand the phenomenon of FDI, its mechanisms and determinants. The second question is an assay to establish a link between FDI and economic growth. Our work classifies countries into five zones with an emphasis on the Maghreb and the Middle East. We show that to be attractive for FDI; a country should be politically stable, with adequate infrastructure, effective institutions and an educated population. Natural resources and bilateral investment treaties are decisive factors for the attraction of FDI. In addition, there are biases specific to certain regions. The Maghreb and the Middle East suffer from negative biases that are preventing this zone from attracting FDI. We try to explain and analyze the causes of this limited volume of FDI received. On the link FDI-growth, we found that FDI does not begin to have a positive effect on growth until there is a certain threshold level of human capital in the population.

Depuis l’application de la politique de Réforme et d’Ouverture, la Chine remporte un grand succès pour attirer les investissements étrangers. Elle est devenue le troisième pays investisseur. Ses IDE sont distribués dans la plupart des pays et régions du monde et leur distribution sectorielle est de plus en plus élargie. Il existe divers facteurs décisifs de l’internationalisation des entreprises chinoises, tels que la croissance économique chinoise, la stratégie d’intégration de l’entreprise, la recherche du marché, de la technologie et des autres actifs créatifs. Les entreprises chinoises possèdent leurs propres avantages concurrentiels sur le marché international, tels que les technologies, des ressources issues du pays mère. Les entreprises chinoises effectuent leur choix de modèles d’internationalisation en fonction de leurs stratégies, de leurs stades de développement, de leurs motivations et de leurs compétences d’organisation internationale. Ces différentes problématiques sont évoqués et analysés à travers d’une étude de cas sur YTO France. / Since the implementation of the policy of reform and opening, China has a great success in attracting foreign investment. It has become the third largest investor country. Chinese FDI are distributed in most of the world's countries and regions. The sectorial distribution is increasingly expanded. There are various decisive factors of the internationalization of Chinese enterprises, as China's economic growth, the development strategy and overall business integration, the search for new markets, for creative assets, etc. The Chinese companies have their own competitive advantages, such as the technologies, the resources from the origin country. Chinese companies do their choices of internationalization models based on their strategies, their stages of development, their motivations and their international organization skills. The different problems are shown and analyzed by a case study of YTO France.

Cette thèse porte sur les stratégies d’internationalisation des firmes chinoises, particulièrement celles qui s’implantent en Europe. À travers une série d’études empiriques nous visons à traiter plusieurs aspects au regard des stratégies employées par ces firmes chinoises. À travers une première étude de cas, nous avons identifié différents parcours internationaux adoptés par les firmes chinoises en référence avec les théories existantes. Par la suite, nous avons conduit à travers une deuxième étude de cas, une analyse comparative de deux cadres théoriques distincts (modèle OLI et LLL). Cela nous a permis de souligner le pouvoir explicatif important de ces deux théories durant des périodes et des contextes différents dans lesquels les firmes chinoises se sont situées. Troisièmement, nous avons visé plus spécifiquement les partenariats entre les multinationales chinoises et les PME françaises. Ce travail a souligné comment ces deux types de firmes, par la combinaison de leurs asymétries réciproques, peuvent surmonter diverses difficultés de leur développement respectif. Au final, selon le concept de distance psychique proposé par le modèle d’Uppsala, nous avons analysé l’impact de la distance psychique dans le cas des multinationales chinoises. Sur la base d’une étude quantitative, cette fois-ci, nous avons proposé qu’en raison de diverses évolutions sociétales (avancement des technologies d’information ; amélioration des moyens de transport, etc.) et de certaines capacités de ces firmes chinoises, les difficultés liées à la distance psychique rencontrée par ces firmes sont inférieures à celles envisagées par le modèle d’Uppsala. / This PhD focuses on the internationalization strategies of Chinese companies, specifically those that are setting up in Europe. Through a series of empirical studies, we aim to treat several aspects with regard to the strategies employed by these Chinese companies. In our first case study, we have identified various international development paths adopted by Chinese firms in reference to existing theories. Subsequently, we conducted, through a second case study, a comparative analysis of two distinct theoretical frameworks (OLI and LLL model). This allowed us to highlight the important explanatory potential of these two theories during different times and contexts in which Chinese firms are embedded. Thirdly, we focused more specifically on partnerships between Chinese multinationals and French SMEs. This work revealed how these two types of firms may overcome various difficulties in combining their reciprocal asymmetries. In the end, according to the concept of psychic distance proposed by the Uppsala model, we addressed the impact of psychic distance in the case of Chinese multinationals. Through a quantitative study, we proposed that due to various societal evolution (advancement of information technologies, improvement of the transport, etc.)and to certain capabilities of Chinese multinationals, the psychic distance related difficulties faced by Chinese multinationals are less than those presumed by the Uppsala model.