O Nitreto de Gálio (GaN) é um semicondutor de gap direto, motivo de numerosas pesquisas científicas, principalmente devido a sua importância na fabricação de dispositivos de alta potência e optoeletrônicas. Ligas de GaN como InGaN e AlGaN, por exemplo, possibilitam a fabricação de LEDs e LASERs azuis. Neste nosso estudo selecionamos o Arseneto de Gálio (GaAs) como um substrato viável para síntese de GaN mediante a permuta de Arsênio (As) por Nitrogênio (N) fundamentada em três passos: a) incorporação de N por implantação iônica em GaAs (à 350, 450 ou 550 ºC) em elevadas fluências (1, 2, 3 ou 4 × 1017 N/cm2); b) maior estabilidade das ligações Ga-N frente às de Ga-As; e c) expurgo de As da região contendo N implantado mediante recozimentos (à 550, 650, 750, 850 ou 1000 ºC) sob fluxo de N2. Uma capa de ~ 125 nm de Nitreto de Silício (Si3N4) foi depositada por sputtering sobre o GaAs previamente a implantação à quente: camada de sacrifício que pode ser removida após a síntese. Análises por Microscopia Eletrônica de Transmissão (TEM) e Espectroscopia de Raios- X por Dispersão em Energia (EDS) demonstraram que, no estado como-implantado da fluência de 3 × 1017 N/cm2, formam-se bolhas de N para ambos os lados da interface Si3N4/GaAs e a região implantada do GaAs amorfiza. Após um recozimento à 850 ºC/5 min, observou-se uma elevada degradação da camada de Si3N4, fragilizada pela formação das bolhas de N. Formou-se uma camada contínua de GaN (GaN-layer) de ~ 70 nm na sua fase hexagonal, sustentada por “pilares” no substrato GaAs, entre os quais existem extensos vazios. Medidas TEM em alta resolução (HRTEM) e por Difração de Elétrons de Área Selecionada (SAED) revelaram que a GaN-layer apresenta forte tendência à epitaxia com o substrato GaAs (relações de epitaxia são aqui apresentadas), e regiões estruturalmente espelhadas (i.e., twins). SAED sobre os pilares evidenciaram uma fase transicional cúbica, com um parâmetro de rede substancialmente menor (0,42 ± 0,01) nm que o reportado na literatura (0,45 nm). Estudos por Espectrometria de Retroespalhamento de Rutherford e Canalização (RBS/C) mostraram que a GaN-layer é rica em N (Ga1,00N1,90, para 3 × 1017 N/cm2) e apresenta canalização (para implantações de 2 e 3 × 1017 N/cm2), confirmando o caráter monocristalino identificado por TEM. Medidas de Fotoluminescência (PL) confirmam emissão na região do gap de banda do α-GaN (~ 3,4 eV), bem como bandas associadas a defeitos estruturais do material. Também foi investigado o efeito de campos de tensão provenientes de bolhas de Hélio (He) mediante a realização da síntese a partir de substrato GaAs pré-implantado com He. Neste caso, as bolhas, que se formam no GaAs durante a implantação de N à quente e extinguem-se após recozimentos, limitam a difusão de N para o interior do substrato, conduzindo a formação de uma GaN-layer mais espessa (~ 120 nm) e com bem mais N (Ga1,00N2,80). Como consequência, a GaNlayer apresentou um caráter mais policristalino. / The Gallium Nitride (GaN) is a direct gap semiconductor, is issue of numerous scientific research, mainly due to its importance in the manufacture of high power devices and optoelectronic devices. GaN alloys, as InGaN and AlGaN, for example, enable the production of LEDs and blue LASERs. In this study, we have selected Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) as a suitable substrate for GaN synthesis through Arsenic (As) replacement by Nitrogen (N), based on three steps: a) incorporation of N by ion implantation into GaAs (at 350, 450 or 550 ºC) at high fluences (1, 2, 3 or 4 × 1017 N/cm2); b) higher stability of the Ga-N bonds compared to the Ga-As ones; and c) purge of As from the region containing implanted N by annealing (at 550, 650, 750, 850 or 1000 ºC) under N2 flow. A 125-nm cap-layer of Silicon Nitride (Si3N4) was deposited by sputtering on GaAs prior to the hot implantation: it is a sacrifice layer which can be removed after the synthesis. Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) and Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS) analyzes demonstrated that, on the as-implanted state of the fluence of 3 × 1017 N/cm2, N bubbles are formed on both sides of the Si3N4/GaAs interface and the implanted region of GaAs amorphizes. After annealing at 850 °C/5min, a high degradation of the Si3N4 layer was observed, weakened by the formation of N bubbles. A continuous layer of GaN (GaN-layer) of ~ 70 nm was formed in its hexagonal phase, supported by “pillars” on the GaAs substrate, with extensive voids in between them. High-Resolution TEM (HRTEM) and Selected Area Electron Diffraction (SAED) measurements revealed that the GaN-layer exhibits a strong tendency to epitaxy with the GaAs substrate (epitaxial relationships are here presented), and structurally mirrored regions (i.e., twins). SAED on the pillars showed a transitional cubic phase, with a lattice parameter substantially smaller (0.42 ± 0.01) nm than the one reported in the literature (0.45 nm). Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry studies and Channeling (RBS/C) showed that the GaN-layer is rich in N (Ga1.00N1.90, for 3 × 1017 N/cm2) and presents channeling (for implantations of 2 and 3 × 1017 N/cm2), corroborating the monocrystalline nature identified by TEM. Photoluminescence (PL) measurements confirm emission in the band gap region of a- GaN (~ 3.4 eV), as well as bands associated to structural defects in the material. It was also investigated the effect of strain fields from Helium (He) bubbles through synthesis starting up from He pre-implanted GaAs substrate. In this case, the bubbles, which are formed in the GaAs during the hot N-implantation and are annihilated after annealing, limit the N diffusion into the substrate, leading to the formation of a thicker GaN-layer (~ 120 nm) and with much more N (Ga1.00N2.80). As a result, the GaN-layer presented an aspect more polycrystalline.

Doping allows us to modify semiconductor materials for desired properties such as conductivity, bandgap, and / or lattice parameter. A small portion replacement of the highly mismatched isoelectronic dopants with the host atoms of a semiconductor can result in drastic variation of its structural, optical, and / or electronic properties. Here, the term "mismatch" describes the properties of atom size, ionicity, and / or electronegativity. This thesis presents the fabrication of two kinds of highly mismatched semiconductor alloys, i.e., Ge(1-x)Sn(x) and GaAs(1-x)N(x). The structural and optical properties of the prepared Ge(1-x)Sn(x) and GaAs(1-x)N(x) have been investigated. The results suggest an efficient above-solubility doping induced by non-equilibrium methods of ion implantation and ultrashort annealing. Pulsed laser melting promotes the regrowth of monocrystalline Ge(1-x)Sn(x), whereas flash lamp annealing brings about the formation of high quality GaAs(1-x)N(x) with room temperature photoluminescence. The bandgap modification of Ge(1-x)Sn(x) and GaAs(1-x)N(x) has been verified by optical measurements of spectroscopic ellipsometry and photoluminescence, respectively. In addition, effective defect engineering in GaAs has been achieved by flash lamp annealing, by which a quasi-temperature-stable photoluminescence at 1.3 µm has been obtained. / Dotierung ermöglicht es, die Eigenschaften von Halbleitermaterialien, wie Leitfähigkeit, aber auch Bandabstand und / oder Gitterkonstanten gezielt zu verändern. Wenn ein Halbleiter mit einer kleinen Menge unterschiedliche Fremdatome dotiert wird, kann dies in einer drastischen Modifikation der strukturellen, optischen und / oder elektronischen Eigenschaften resultieren. Der Begriff "unterschiedlich" bedeutet hier die Eigenschaften von Atomgröße, Ioniztät und / oder Elektronegativität. Diese Doktorarbeit beschreibt die Herstellung von zwei Arten von stark fehlangepassten Halbleiterlegierungen: Ge(1-x)Sn(x) und GaAs(1-x)N(x). Die strukturellen und optischen Eigenschaften von Ge(1-x)Sn(x) und GaAs(1-x)N(x) wurden untersucht. Die Ergebnisse deuten auf eine effiziente Dotierung oberhalb der Löslichkeit, induziert durch die Nicht-Gleichgewichtsverfahren Ionenimplantation und Ultrakurzzeit-Ausheilung. Gepulstes Laserschmelzen ermöglicht das Nachwachsen von monokristallinem Ge(1-x)Sn(x), während die Blitzlampenausheilung in der Bildung von GaAs(1-x)N(x) hoher Qualität mit Photolumineszenz bei Raumtemperatur resultiert. Die Änderung der Bandlücke von Ge(1-x)Sn(x) und GaAs(1-x)N(x) wurde durch die optischen Methoden der spektroskopischen Ellipsometrie und Photolumineszenz verifiziert. Darüber hinaus konnte in ausgeheiltem GaAs eine quasi-temperaturstabile Photolumineszenz bei 1,3 µm beobachtet werden.

The progress in device performance of modern microelectronic technology is mainly driven by down-scaling. In the near future, this road will probably reach a point where physical limits make even more down-scaling impossible. The substitution of single components materialwise over the last decades, like high-k dielectrics or metal gates, has been a suitable approach to foster performance improvements. In this scheme, the integration of high-mobility III-V compound semiconductors as channel materials into Si technology is a promising route to follow for the next one or two device generations. III-V integration, today, is conventionally performed by using techniques like molecular beam epitaxy or wafer bonding which utilize solid phase crystallization but suffer to strain due to the lattice mismatch between III-V compounds and Si. An alternative approach using sequential ion beam implantation in combination with a subsequent flash lamp annealing is presented in this work. Using this technique, nanocrystals from various III-V compounds have been successfully integrated into bulk Si and Ge as well as into thin Si layers which used either SOI substrates or were grown by plasma-enhanced chemical vapour deposition. The III-V compounds which have been fabricated are GaP, GaAs, GaSb, InP, InAs, GaSb and InxGa1-xAs with variable composition. The structural properties of these nanocrystals have been investigated by Rutherford backscattering, scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy, including bright-field, dark-field, high-resolution, high-angle annular dark-field and scanning mode imaging, electron-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy and energy-filtered element mapping. Furthermore, Raman spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction have been performed to characterise the nanocrystals optically. In Raman spectroscopy, the characteristic transversal and longitudinal optical phonon modes of the different III-V compounds have been observed. These signals proof that the nanocrystals have formed by the combination of ion implantation and flash lamp annealing. Additionally, the appearance of the typical phonon modes of the respective substrate materials verifies recrystallization of the substrate by the flash lamp after amorphisation during implantation. In the bulk Si samples, the nanocrystals have a circular or rectangular lateral shape and they are randomly distributed at the surface. Their cross-section has either a hemispherical or triangular shape. In bulk Ge, there are two types of precipitates: one at the surface with arbitrary shape and another one buried with circular shape. For the thin film samples, the lateral shape of the nanocrystals is more or less arbitrary and they feature a block-like cross-section which is limited in height by the Si layer thickness. Regarding crystalline quality, the nanocrystals in all samples are mainly single-crystalline with only a few number of stacking faults. However, the crystalline quality in the bulk samples is slightly better than in the thin films. The X-ray diffraction measurements display the (111), (220) and (311) Bragg peaks for InAs and GaAs as well as for the InxGa1-xAs where the peaks shift with increasing In content from GaAs towards InAs. The underlying formation mechanism is identified as liquid phase epitaxy. Hereby, the ion implantation leads to an amorphisation of the substrate material which is then molten by the subsequent flash lamp annealing. This yields a homogeneous distribution of the implanted elements within the melt due to their strongly increased diffusivity in the liquid phase. Afterwards, the substrate material starts to recrystallize at first and an enrichment of the melt with group-III and group-V elements takes place due to segregation. When the temperature is low enough, the III-V compound semiconductor starts to crystallize using the recrystallized substrate material as a template for epitaxial growth. In order to gain control over the lateral nanocrystal distribution, an implantation mask of either aluminium or nickel is introduced. Using this mask, only small areas of the samples are implanted. After flash lamp treatment, nanocrystals form only in these small areas, which allows precise positioning of them. An optimal implantation window size with an edge length of around 300nm has been determined to obtain one nanocrystal per implanted area. During an additional experiment, the preparation of Si nanowires using electron beam lithography and reactive ion etching has been conducted. Hereby, two different processes have been investigated; one using a ZEP resist, a lift-off step and a Ni hard mask and another one using a hydrogen silsesquioxane resist which is used directly as a mask for etching. The HSQ-based process turned out to yield Si nanowires of better quality. Combining both, the masked implantation and the Si nanowire fabrication, it might be possible to integrate a single III-V nanocrystal into a Si nanowire to produce a III-V-in-Si-nanowire structure for electrical testing. / Der Fortschritt in der Leistungsfähigkeit der Bauelemente moderner Mikroelektroniktechnologie wird hauptsächlich durch das Skalieren vorangetrieben. In naher Zukunft wird dieser Weg wahrscheinlich einen Punkt erreichen, an dem physikalische Grenzen weiteres Herunterskalieren unmöglich machen. Der Austausch einzelner Teile auf Materialebene, wie Hoch-Epsilon-Dielektrika oder Metall-Gate-Elektroden, war während der letzten Jahrzehnte ein geeigneter Ansatz, um die Leistungsverbesserung voranzubringen. Nach diesem Schema ist die Integration von III-V-Verbindungshalbleiter mit hoher Mobilität ein vielversprechender Weg, dem man für die nächsten ein oder zwei Bauelementgenerationen folgen kann. Heutzutage erfolgt die III-V-Integration konventionell mit Verfahren wie der Molekularstrahlepitaxie oder dem Waferbonden, welche die Festphasenkristallisation nutzen, die aber aufgrund der Gitterfehlanpassung zwischen III-V-Verbindungen und Silizium an Verspannungen leiden. In dieser Arbeit wird ein alternativer Ansatz präsentiert, welcher die sequenzielle Ionenstrahlimplantation in Verbindung mit einer darauffolgenden Blitzlampentemperung ausnutzt. Mit Hilfe dieses Verfahrens wurden Nanokristalle verschiedener III-V-Verbindungshalbleiter erfolgreich in Bulksilizium- und -germaniumsubstrate sowie in dünne Siliziumschichten integriert. Für die dünnen Schichten wurden hierbei entweder SOI-Substrate verwendet oder sie wurden mittels plasmagestützer chemischer Gasphasenabscheidung gewachsen. Die hergestellten III-V-Verbindungen umfassen GaP, GaAs, GaSb, InP, InAs, InSb und InxGa1-xAs mit veränderbarer Zusammensetzung. Die strukturellen Eigenschaften dieser Nanokristalle wurden mit Rutherford-Rückstreu-Spektroskopie, Rasterelektronenmikroskopie und Transmissionselektronenmikroskopie untersucht. Bei der Transmissionelektronenmikroskopie wurden die Hellfeld-, Dunkelfeld-, hochauflösenden, “high-angle annular dark-field” und Rasteraufnahmemodi sowie die energiedispersive Röntgenspektroskopie und die energiegefilterte Elementabbildung eingesetzt. Darüber hinaus wurden Ramanspektroskopie- und Röntgenbeugungsmessungen durchgeführt, um die Nanokristalle optisch zu charakterisieren. Mittels Ramanspektroskopie wurden die charakteristischen transversal- und longitudinal-optischen Phononenmoden der verschiedenen III-V-Verbindungen beobachtet. Diese Signale beweisen, dass sich unter Verwendung der Kombination von Ionenstrahlimplantation und Blitzlampentemperung Nanokristalle bilden. Weiterhin zeigt das Vorhandensein der typischen Phononenmoden der jeweiligen Substratmaterialien, dass die Substrate aufgrund der Blitzlampentemperung rekristallisiert sind, nachdem sie durch Ionenimplantation amorphisiert wurden. In den Bulksiliziumproben besitzen die Nanokristalle eine kreisförmige oder rechteckige Kontur und sind in zufälliger Anordnung an der Oberfläche verteilt. Ihr Querschnitt zeigt entweder eine Halbkugel- oder dreieckige Form. Im Bulkgermanium gibt es zwei Arten von Ausscheidungen: eine mit willkürlicher Form an der Oberfläche und eine andere, vergrabene mit sphärischer Form. Betrachtet man die Proben mit den dünnen Schichten, ist die laterale Form der Nanokristalle mehr oder weniger willkürlich und sie zeigen einen blockähnlichen Querschnitt, welcher in der Höhe durch die Siliziumschichtdicke begrenzt ist. Bezüglich der Kristallqualität sind die Nanokristalle in allen Proben mehrheitlich einkristallin und weisen nur eine geringe Anzahl an Stapelfehlern auf. Jedoch ist die Kristallqualität in den Bulkmaterialien ein wenig besser als in den dünnen Schichten. Die Röntgenbeugungsmessungen zeigen die (111), (220) und (311) Bragg-Reflexe des InAs und GaAs sowie des InxGa1-xAs, wobei sich hier die Signalpositionen mit steigendem Gehalt an Indium von GaAs zu InAs verschieben. Als zugrundeliegender Bildungsmechanismus wurde die Flüssigphasenepitaxie identifiziert. Hierbei führt die Ionenstrahlimplantation zu einer Amorphisierung des Substratmaterials, welches dann durch die anschließende Blitzlampentemperung aufgeschmolzen wird. Daraus resultiert eine homogene Verteilung der implantierten Elemente in der Schmelze, da diese eine stark erhöhte Diffusivität in der flüssigen Phase aufweisen. Danach beginnt zuerst das Substratmaterial zu rekristallisieren und es kommt aufgrund von Segregationseffekten zu einer Anreicherung der Schmelze mit den Gruppe-III- und Gruppe-V-Elementen. Wenn die Temperatur niedrig genug ist, beginnt auch der III-V-Verbindungshalbleiter zu kristallisieren, wobei er das rekristallisierte Substratmaterial als Grundlage für ein epitaktisches Wachstum nutzt. In der Absicht Kontrolle über die laterale Verteilung der Nanokristalle zu erhalten, wurde eine Implantationsmaske aus Aluminium beziehungsweise Nickel eingeführt. Durch die Benutzung einer solchen Maske wurden nur kleine Bereiche der Proben implantiert. Nach der Blitzlampentemperung werden nur in diesen kleinen Bereichen Nanokristalle gebildet, was eine genaue Positionierung dieser erlaubt. Es wurde eine optimale Implantationsfenstergröße mit einer Kantenlänge von ungefähr 300 nm ermittelt, damit sich nur ein Nanokristall pro implantierten Bereich bildet. Während eines zusätzlichen Experiments wurde die Präparation von Siliziumnanodrähten mit Hilfe von Elektronenstrahllithografie und reaktivem Ionenätzen durchgeführt. Hierbei wurden zwei verschiedene Prozesse getestet: einer, welcher einen ZEP-Lack, einen Lift-off-Schritt und eine Nickelhartmaske nutzt, und ein anderer, welcher einen HSQ-Lack verwendet, der wiederum direkt als Maske für die Ätzung dient. Es stellte sich heraus, dass der HSQ-basierte Prozess Siliziumnanodrähte von höherer Qualität liefert. Kombiniert man beides, die maskierte Implantation und die Siliziumnanodrahtherstellung, miteinander, sollte es möglich sein, einzelne III-V-Nanokristalle in einen Siliziumnanodraht zu integrieren, um eine III-V-in-Siliziumnanodrahtstruktur zu fertigen, welche für elektrische Messungen geeignet ist.

Higher conversion efficiencies while reducing costs at the same time is the ultimate goal driving the development of solar cells. Multi-crystalline silicon has attracted considerable attention because of its high stability against light soaking. In case of solar grade multi-crystalline silicon the rigorous control of metal impurities is desirable for solar cell fabrication. It is the aim of this thesis to develop a new manufacturing process optimized for solar-grade multi-crystalline silicon solar cells. In this work the goal is to form solar cell emitters in silicon substrates by plasma immersion ion implantation of phosphine and posterior millisecond-range flash lamp annealing. These techniques were chosen as a new approach in order to decrease the production cost by reducing the amount of energy needed during fabrication. Therefore, this approach is called “Low Thermal Budget” process. After ion implantation the silicon surface is strongly disordered or amorphous up to the depth of the projected ion range. Therefore, subsequent annealing is required to remove the implantation damage and activate the doping element. Flash lamp annealing in the millisecond-range is demonstrated here as a very promising technique for the emitter formation at an overall low thermal budget. During flash lamp annealing, only the wafer surface is heated homogeneously to high temperatures at a time scales of ms. Thereby, implantation damages are annealed and phosphorous is electrically activated. The variation of pulse time allows to modify the degree of annealing of the bulk region to some extent as well. This can have an influence on the gettering behavior of metallic impurities. Ion implantation doping got in distinct consideration for doping of single-crystalline solar cells very recently. The efficient doping of multi-crystalline silicon remains the main challenge to reduce costs. The influence of different annealing techniques on the optical and electrical properties of multi-crystalline silicon solar cells was investigated. The Raman spectroscopy showed that the silicon surface is amorphous after ion implantation. It could be demonstrated that flash lamp annealing at 1000 °C for 3 ms even without preheating is sufficient to recrystallize implanted silicon. The sheet resistance of flash lamp annealed samples is in the range of about 60 Ω/□. Without surface passivation the minority carrier diffusion length in the flash lamp annealed samples is in the range of 85 µm. This is up to one order of magnitude higher than that observed for rapid thermal or furnace annealed samples. The highest carrier concentration and efficiency as well as the lowest resistivity were obtained after annealing at 1200 °C for 20 ms for both, single- and multi-crystalline silicon wafers. Photoluminescence results point towards phosphorous cluster formation at high annealing temperatures which affects metal impurity gettering within the emitter. Additionally, in silicon based solar cells, hydrogen plays a fundamental role due to its excellent passivation properties. The optical and electrical properties of the fabricated emitters were studied with particular interest in their dependence on the hydrogen content present in the samples. The influence of different flash lamp annealing parameters and a comparison with traditional thermal treatments such as rapid thermal and furnace annealing are presented. The samples treated by flash lamp annealing at 1200 °C for 20 ms in forming gas show sheet resistance values in the order of 60 Ω/□, and minority carrier diffusion lengths in the range of ~200 µm without the use of a capping layer for surface passivation. These results are significantly better than those obtained from rapid thermal or furnace annealed samples. The simultaneous implantation of hydrogen during the doping process, combined with optimal flash lamp annealing parameters, gave promising results for the application of this technology in replacing the conventional phosphoroxychlorid deposition and diffusion.:1 Motivation and objectives 1 2 Progress and prospects of silicon solar cells 5 3 Basics of a silicon solar cell 8 3.1 Specific characteristic of a standard silicon solar cell 12 3.2 Fundamental efficiency limits of standard silicon solar cells 14 4 Industrial process featuring low thermal budget process 17 4.1 Cleaning and etching steps 19 4.2 Emitter formation in p-type silicon 20 4.2.1 Thermal diffusion of phosphorous (industrial) 22 4.2.2 Ion beam implantation 24 4.2.3 Plasma immersion ion implantation as potential tool for the LTB process 26 4.2.4 Thermal processing of ion implanted solar cells - FLA as a novel method 28 4.3 Contact formation 30 4.3.1 Screen printing and sintering (industrial) 30 4.3.2 Gettering and BSF formation by aluminum diffusion (industrial) 32 4.3.3 Sputtering (LTB) 33 4.4 Surface passivation 33 5 Fabrication and characterization 35 5.1 Fabrication 35 5.2 Characterization of the p-n junction by ion implantation and FLA 39 5.2.1 Four-Point-Probe measurement (4-PPM) 39 5.2.2 Raman Spectroscopy (RS) 40 5.2.3 Photoluminescence Spectroscopy (PL) 41 5.2.4 Surface Photo-Voltage (SPV) 41 5.3 Analysis of hydrogen and metal impurities 46 5.3.1 Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS) 46 5.3.2 Elastic Recoil Detection Analyses (ERDA) and 47 Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry (RBS) 47 5.4 Solar cell characterization 49 5.4.1 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) 49 5.4.2 Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES) 50 5.4.3 Light Beam Induced Current (LBIC) 51 5.4.4 Sun Simulator 52 6 Solar cell performance 53 6.1 Processing of the p-n junction by IBI and FLA 54 6.1.1 Variation FLA parameters 54 6.1.2 Influence of the grain size on the LD 71 6.2 Influence of the hydrogen introduced by PIII 76 6.2.1 Hydrogen profile by SIMS 76 6.2.2 H content as function of the thermal treatments 78 6.2.3 Optical properties of the silicon substrate 80 6.3 Influence of PIII and FLA on implanted iron 82 6.4 Contact formation 88 6.4.1 Antireflection layer 89 6.4.2 Back surface formation 90 6.4.3 Electrical and optical characterization 93 7 Overview of the achieved results 98 I References VIII II Publications XVII III Symbols index XVIII IV Acronyms XXI

Das Konzept neuartiger, resistiv schaltender Langzeitspeicherzellen sieht eine enorme Erhöhung der Speicherdichte bei gleichzeitig geringem Energieverbrauch und hoher Skalierbarkeit vor. In diesem Zusammenhang sind unterschiedlichste Übergangsmetalloxide Gegenstand der aktuellen Forschung, die zwischen Metallelektroden in einer Metall-Isolator-Metall-Struktur eingebettet sind. Ein anerkanntes Modell zur Klärung der lokalen Struktur innerhalb des Schaltmechanismus beschreibt die Änderung des resistiven Zustandes in der wechselnden Ausbildung und Auflösung eines leitfähigen Pfades in der Oxidschicht, der beide Elektroden miteinander verbindet. Die vorliegende Arbeit befasst sich auf dieser Grundlage mit der Untersuchung solcher Speicherzellen, wobei anhand der gewählten Elektrodenmaterialien Speichereffekte rein auf Änderungen im Oxid zurückzuführen sind. Die sich daraus ergebende Möglichkeit der gezielten Änderung des efekthaushaltes und des resistiven Schaltverhaltens der Oxidschichten durch deren Ausheizung oder Modifikation mittels Ionenimplantation stand im Fokus der Arbeit. Dementsprechend muss für eine genaue Lokalisierung des Schaltmechanismus die gewählte Oxidstruktur nicht nur genauestens bekannt, sondern auch möglichst rein sein. Zur Vereinigung all diese Faktoren wird das Modellsystem SrO-TiO2 mit den beiden Vertretern TiO2 und SrTiO3 untersucht, da seine Eigenschaften in der Literatur bereits rege diskutiert wurden. Zur Gewährleistung der Reinheit der Schichten wird die Herstellung der Isolatorschichten durch Atomlagenabscheidung eingesetzt und deren Optimierung, sowie Schichtcharakterisierung im ersten Teil der Arbeit vorgestellt. Mittels einer Vielzahl optischer und struktureller Analysemethoden lassen sich definierte Rückschlüsse über die Eigenschaften der Oxide ziehen. Sämtliche Veröffentlichungen zur Herstellung von SrTiO3 mittels Atomlagenabscheidung beziehen sich entweder auf eigens hergestellte Anlagensysteme oder Präkursormaterialien, wodurch die Schichten industriell nicht reproduzierbar sind. Eines der Ergebnisse der vorliegenden Arbeit ermöglicht eben dies durch die erstmalige Kombination einer kommerziell erhältlichen Anlage mit kommerziellen Präkursormaterialien. Nach deren Optimierung werden die Oxidschichten zwischen den beiden Metallelektroden Au und TiN integriert und die daraus resultierenden Speicherzellen elektrisch charakterisiert. Es kann bipolares, nichtflüchtiges, resistives Schaltverhalten in amorphen und ex situ kristallisierten Oxiden nachgewiesen werden. Anhand von Struktur-Eigenschaft-Korrelationen gelingt es, die Leitungsmechanismen in den untersuchten Speicherzellen als Schottky-Emission und bei ausreichend hohen Spannungen als volumendominierte Poole-Frenkel-Emission zu charakterisieren. Bei den dafür notwendigen Defekten handelt es sich um flache Donatorzustände. Die Annahme des resistiven Schaltens über einen reversiblen leitfähigen Pfad basierend auf Defektzuständen wird durch die Änderung der Coulomb-Barrierenhöhe bei konstanter Schottky-Barrierenhöhe innerhalb derselben Mikrostruktur bestätigt. Besonders das untersuchte TiO2 amorpher Struktur mit Schalt- und Lesegeschwindigkeiten von wenigen Millisekunden, aber auch polykristallines SrTiO3 zeigen ein hohes Potential für deren zukünftige Anwendung auf dem Gebiet resistiv schaltender Speicherzellen. Durch Kr+-Ionenimplantation ändern sich nachweislich sowohl die elektrischen als auch die strukturellen Eigenschaften in TiO2 und SrTiO3. XRD-Messungen an polykristallinen TiO2-Schichten bestätigen die mittels SRIM durchgeführten Simulationsdaten und zeigen für Implantationen ausreichend hoher Fluenzen eine Amorphisierung der kristallinen Strukturen durch atomare Umverteilung im Oxid. Dadurch bilden sich zusätzlich intrinsische, tiefe Defektniveaus in den Oxidschichten, welche das resistive Schalten modifizieren. Die Implantation polykristalliner TiO2-Schichten führt nachweislich zur Umwandlung flüchtiger in nichtflüchtige Schaltkurven, die im Vergleich zu amorphen Ausgangsproben stabilere Widerstandswerte bei geringerem Energieaufwand zeigen. / The concept of novel, longterm resistive switching memories is based on an enormous increase of the storage density with a simultaneous low energy consumption and a high scalability. In this context, different transition metal oxides, which are embedded between metal electrodes in a metal-insulatormetal structure, are part of the ongoing research. A widely recognized model for an explanation of the local structure within the switching mechanism discribes the alteration of the resistive state as a result of an alternating forming and interruption of a conducting path inside an oxide layer. The presence of such a filament acts like a linkage between the electrodes. Based on that, the present study deals with the investigation of such memory storages. In the wake of this the chosen electrode materials enables the determination of memory effects due to pure modifications inside the oxide layers. Thus, a targeted manipulation of defects and the resistive switching mechanism becomes possible by annealing of the layer or its modification by ion implantation which was the central challenge. Therefore the used oxide structures have to be well reputed and, additionally, almost free of defects to be able to localize changes in the switching mechanism exactly. To combine all this facts, the model system SrO-TiO2 is investigated with the two compounds TiO2 und SrTiO3. The properties of this system are already well discussed in literature. To ensure the purity of the layers, they are created by atomic layer deposition. The optimisation of the deposition process and layer characterization is presented in the first part of this study. Using a variety of optical and structural analysis methods allows defined conclusions about the oxide properties. All publications concerning the atomic layer deposition of SrTiO3 deal with self-made devices or precursor materials foreclosing an industrial reproduction. One of the results of this thesis enables exactly that by a combination of a commerically available device and commercial precursor materials. After its optimisation, the oxide layers are integrated between the two electrode materials Au and TiN in order to characterize the electrical properties of the resulting memory cells. Bipolar, nonvolatile resistive switching can be proved for amorphous and ex situ crystallised oxides. Based on structure-property correlations the conduction mechanism within the investigated cells can be identified as Schottky emission and for sufficiently high voltage as volume-dominated Poole Frenkel emission. The necessary defects therefore are determined to be shallow donor states. The assumption of resistive switching based on a reversible conducting filament consisting of defect states is confirmed by a changing Coulomb barrier high during the high of the Schottky barrier remains contant. Especially amorphous TiO2 with switching and reading speeds up to a few milliseconds, but also polycrystalline SrTiO3 showing high potential for future implementation in resistive switching memory cells. By use of Kr+ ion implantation the electrical and structural properties of TiO2 and SrTiO3 are changed. XRD measurements at crystalline TiO2 layers verify simulation data carried out by SRIM. For high enough fluences it shows an amorphisation of the crystalline structures by atomic redistribution inside the oxids. Thus, additionally intrinsic deep defects are created inside the oxide layers which modify the resistive switching character. A special focus is on the transformation of crystalline volatile switching TiO2 layers into amorphous non-volatile memory devices which shows more stable resistance values combined with lower energy input compared to initial amorphous layers.

Thema dieser Arbeit ist eine experimentelle Untersuchung zur Verbesserung der tribologischen Eigenschaften von Hartmetallen auf der Basis von Wolframkarbid– Kobalt unter Benutzung von Ionen–Implantation in Kombination mit den hierbei auftretenden Struktur– und Phasen–Änderungen. Die vorliegende Arbeit unterscheidet sich von allen anderen bisherigen Arbeiten besonders durch (1.) die detaillierte Analyse der mikroskopischen Veränderungen und durch (2.) deren Verknüpfung mit der Änderung der tribologischen Eigenschaften des Materials.

In the last years, there is a rise of interest in investigation and fabrication of nanometer sized magnetic structures due to their various applications (e.g. for data storage or micro sensors). Over the last several decades ion beam implantation became an important tool for the modification of materials and in particular for the manipulation of magnetic properties. Nanopatterning and implantation can be done simultaneously using focused-ion beam (FIB) techniques. FIB implantation and standard ion implantation differ in their beam current densities by 7 orders of magnitude. This difference can strongly influence the structural and magnetic properties, e.g. due to a rise of the local temperature in the sample during ion implantation. In previous investigations both types of implantation techniques were studied separately. The aim of the current research was to compare both implantation techniques in terms of structural changes and changes in magnetic properties using the same material system. Moreover, to separate any possible annealing effects from implantation ones, the influence of temperature on the structural and magnetic properties were additionally investigated. For the current study a model material system which is widely used for industrial applications was chosen: a 50 nm thick non-ordered nano-crystalline permalloy (Ni81Fe19) film grown on a SiO2 buffer layer based onto a (100)-oriented Si substrate. The permalloy films were implanted with a 30 keV Ga+ ion beam; and also a series of as-deposited permalloy films were annealed in an ultra-high vacuum (UHV) chamber. Several investigation techniques were applied to study the film structure and composition, and were mostly based on non-destructive X-ray investigation techniques, which are the primary focus of this work. Besides X-ray diffraction (XRD), providing the long-range order crystal structural information, extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) measurements to probe the local structure were performed. Moreover, the film thickness, surface roughness, and interface roughness were obtained from the X-ray reflectivity (XRR) measurements. Additionally cross-sectional transmission electron microscope (XTEM) imaging was used for local structural characterizations. The Ga depth distribution of the samples implanted with a standard ion implanter was measured by the use of Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) and Rutherford backscattering (RBS), and was compared with theoretical TRIDYN calculation. The magnetic properties were characterized via polar magneto-optic Kerr effect (MOKE) measurements at room temperature. It was shown that both implantation techniques lead to a further material crystallization of the partially amorphous permalloy material (i.e. to an increase of the amount of the crystalline material), to a crystallite growth and to a material texturing towards the (111) direction. For low ion fluences a strong increase of the amount of the crystalline material was observed, while for high ion fluences this rise is much weaker. At low ion fluences XTEM images show small isolated crystallites, while for high ones the crystallites start to grow through the entire film. The EXAFS analysis shows that both Ni and Ga atom surroundings have a perfect near-order coordination corresponding to an fcc symmetry. The lattice parameter for both implantation techniques increases with increasing ion fluence according to the same linear law. The lattice parameters obtained from the EXAFS measurements for both implantation types are in a good agreement with the results obtained from the XRD measurements. Grazing incidence XRD (GIXRD) measurements of the samples implanted with a standard ion implanter show an increasing value of microstrain with increasing ion fluence (i.e. the lattice parameter variation is increasing with fluence). Both types of implantation result in an increase of the surface and the interface roughness and demonstrate a decrease of the saturation polarization with increasing ion fluence. From the obtained results it follows that FIB and standard ion implantation influence structure and magnetic properties in a similar way: both lead to a material crystallization, crystallite growth, texturing and decrease of the saturation polarization with increasing ion fluence. A further crystallization of the highly defective nano-crystalline material can be simply understood as a result of exchange processes induced by the energy transferred to the system during the ion implantation. The decrease of the saturation polarization of the implanted samples is mainly attributed to the simple presence of the Ga atoms on the lattice sites of the permalloy film itself. For the annealed samples more complex results were found. The corresponding results can be separated into two temperature regimes: into low (≤400°C) and high (>400°C) temperatures. Similar to the implanted samples, annealing results in a material crystallization with large crystallites growing through the entire film and in a material texturing towards the (111) direction. The EXAFS analysis shows a perfect near-order coordination corresponding to an fcc symmetry. The lattice parameter of the annealed samples slightly decreases at low annealing temperatures, reaches its minimum at about ~400°C and slightly rises at higher ones. From the GIXRD measurements it can be observed that the permalloy material at temperatures above >400°C reaches its strain-free state. On the other hand, the film roughness increases with increasing annealing temperature and a de-wetting of the film is observed at high annealing temperatures. Regardless of the material crystallization and texturing, the samples annealed at low temperatures demonstrate no change in saturation polarization, while at high temperatures a rise by approximately ~15% at 800°C was observed. The rise of the saturation polarization at high annealing temperatures is attributed to the de-wetting effect.

Les phases alpha'-Fe8N1-x et alpha''-Fe16N2 ont un fort potentiel d’application, en raison de leur anisotropie magnétocristalline uniaxiale et de leur grande aimantation à saturation. Cependant, les valeurs annoncées pour ces propriétés magnétiques restent sujettes à discussion. Les recherches menées au cours de cette thèse de doctorat ont été initiées dans le but de clarifier cette situation. L’élaboration des échantillons a principalement consisté en l’implantation ionique d’azote dans des couches minces de fer alpha épitaxiées sur ZnSe/GaAs (001). Entre autres, les effets de la température de la cible et de la fluence sur la structure cristalline des échantillons ont été analysés par diffractométrie des rayons X. La présence d’une anisotropie magnétique perpendiculaire a été mise en évidence dans les couches minces contenant les phases alpha'-Fe8N1-x ou alpha''-Fe16N2. La constante d’anisotropie a été évaluée par magnétométrie à échantillon vibrant et résonance ferromagnétique. À l’occasion de ces recherches, des domaines en rubans faibles ont été observés par microscopie à force magnétique dans certaines couches minces en Fe-N. Ceux-ci sont particulièrement rectilignes et des dislocations coin se trouvent au sein de leur structure périodique. Des études ont alors été réalisées dans le but de contrôler avec précision la réorientation des domaines en rubans et le déplacement des dislocations magnétiques, à l’aide d’un champ magnétique. / The alpha'-Fe8N1-x and alpha''-Fe16N2 phases have a high potential of application, because of their uniaxial magnetocrystalline anisotropy and their large saturation magnetization. However, the values announced for these magnetic properties remain a subject of discussion. The research conducted during this PhD thesis was initiated in order to clarify this situation. Sample making consisted mainly of nitrogen ion implantation into alpha-Fe thin films, epitaxially grown on ZnSe/GaAs (001). Among others, the effects of target temperature and fluence on the crystal structure of the samples were analyzed by X-ray diffractometry. The presence of a perpendicular magnetic anisotropy was demonstrated in the thin films containing the alpha'-Fe8N1-x and alpha''-Fe16N2 phases. The anisotropy constant was evaluated by vibrating sample magnetometry and ferromagnetic resonance. In this research, weak stripe domains were observed by magnetic force microscopy in some Fe-N thin films. These are particularly straight and edge dislocations are found within their periodic structure. Studies were then carried out to precisely control the reorientation of the stripe domains and the displacement of the magnetic dislocations, using a magnetic field.

Depuis plus de 45 ans, les colonnes à faisceaux d'ions focalisés FIB à base de source à métal liquide (Ga) sont utilisées pour l'élaboration, la modification ou l'analyse de nanostructures. Beaucoup plus récemment, moins de 10 ans, les sources plasma sont intégrées dans les FIB afin de répondre aux besoins d'analyse de défaillance mais également de préparation d'échantillons. Ce marché des FIB plasma est en forte progression ces derniers années et s'accompagne d'une amélioration permanente des spécifications de cette technologie encore jeune. Il est donc nécessaire de caractériser au mieux ces sources afin de pouvoir améliorer l'optique associée. Dans cette thèse, nous présentons le développement d'une nouvelle colonne FIB fonctionnant avec une source d'ions plasma, dédiée à la création de centres NV, ainsi que le développement d'un outil permettant de caractériser les performances de cette source.Étant donné le contexte de ces travaux, la première partie du manuscrit est consacrée à la présentation de la technologie FIB, de son fonctionnement et de ses applications. Dans le second chapitre, nous présentons le développement d'une colonne FIB dédiée à l'implantation d'ions azote pour la création contrôlée de centres colorés NV dans des diamants. Nous commençons par introduire les propriétés uniques des centres NV ainsi que les méthodes usuelles pour leur création. Nous présentons ensuite les différentes étapes de la caractérisation de cette colonne FIB. Les implantations réalisées au cours de ce travail ont pu être utilisées pour le développement d'une nouvelle application des diamants dopés.Dans le dernier chapitre du manuscrit, nous nous intéressons à la conception d'un banc de test permettant d'obtenir les paramètres clés de la source d'ions, à savoir la dispersion en énergie et l'émittance. Les méthodes usuelles de mesure de ces paramètres sont présentées puis le fonctionnement du banc de test est entièrement décrit. Nous présentons ensuite les mesures effectuées avec des faisceaux d'ions xénon puis oxygène. Certains paramètres de la source d'ions plasma ont ainsi été obtenus. / For more than 45 years, focused ion beams FIB columns based on liquid metal ion sources (Ga) have been used for the development, modification or analysis of nanostructures. Much more recently, less than 10 years ago, plasma sources are integrated in FIBs to meet the needs of failure analysis as well as sample preparation. This plasma FIB market has grown strongly in recent years and is accompanied by a permanent improvement of the specifications of this young technology. Therefore, it is necessary to characterize these sources in order to improve the associated optics. In this thesis, we present the development of a new FIB column working with a plasma ion source, dedicated to the creation of NV centers, as well as the development of a system dedicated to the characterization of the performances of this source.Given the context of this work, the first part of the manuscript is dedicated to the presentation of FIB technology, its operation and its applications. In the second chapter, we present the development of a FIB column dedicated to the implantation of nitrogen ions for the controlled creation of NV color centers in diamonds. We begin by introducing the unique properties of NV centers as well as the usual methods for their creation. Then we present the different steps of the characterization of this FIB column. The implantations carried out during this work have been used for the development of a new application of doped diamonds.In the last chapter of the thesis, we are interested in designing a test bench to obtain the key parameters of the ion source, namely energy dispersion and emittance. The usual methods for measuring these parameters are presented and the operation of the test bench is fully described. Then we then present the measurements made with beams of xenon ions and oxygen ions. Some parameters of the plasma ion source have thus been obtained.

Using shallow implantation of ions and molecules with masses centred at 27 atomic mass units(amu) in diamond, a new artificial optical centre with unique properties has been created. The centre shows a linearly polarised fluorescence with a main narrow emission line mostly found at 582 nm, together with a weak vibronic sideband at room temperature. The fluorescence lifetime is∼2 ns and the brightest centres are more than three times brighter than the nitrogen-vacancy centres. A majority of the centres shows stable fluorescence whereas some others present a blinking behaviour, at faster or slower rates. Furthermore, a second kind of optical centre has been simultaneously created in the same diamond sample, within the same ion implantation run. This centre has a narrow zero-phonon line (ZPL) at∼546 nm and a broad phonon sideband at room temperature. Interestingly, optically detected magnetic resonance (ODMR) has been measured on several single 546 nm centres and two resonance peaks are found at 0.99 and 1.27 GHz. In view of their very similar ODMR and optical spectra, the 546 nm centre is likely to coincide with the ST1 centre, reported once (with a ZPL at 550 nm), but of still unknown nature. These new kinds of centres are promising for quantum information processing, sub-diffraction optical imaging or use as single-photon sources.