O ferro é essencial para a sobrevivência das bactérias, estando envolvido em vários processos metabólicos. Apesar de sua baixa solubilidade, as bactérias dispõem de sistemas eficientes e específicos para captação, utilização e armazenamento desse metal, ao mesmo tempo controlando adequadamente a concentração de ferro livre no meio, para evitar seus potenciais efeitos tóxicos. Xylella fastidiosa é uma bactéria gram-negativa que coloniza o xilema de uma diversidade de plantas cultivadas e silvestres em várias partes do mundo, sendo o agente causador de uma série de doenças em plantas economicamente importantes como citros, videiras e café. Alguns mecanismos de virulência de X. fastidiosa já foram elencados, entre esses a formação de biofilme, que promoveria a oclusão do xilema e consequente estresse hídrico para a planta. Postula-se que a captação de ferro por X. fastidiosa, causando redução da concentração desse metal no xilema das plantas infectadas, seja uma das estratégias utilizadas pela bactéria em seu processo de infecção. Nosso objetivo neste trabalho foi de investigar o processo de captação de ferro por X. fastidiosa e avaliar em maior detalhe o efeito da concentração de ferro no crescimento e na expressão de fatores de virulência dessa bactéria, expandindo os estudos anteriormente realizados em nosso grupo. Para tal propusemos: (i) avaliar a capacidade de X. fastidiosa produzir sideróforos, pequenas moléculas quelantes de ferro; (ii) investigar, em condições de cultivo com diferentes concentrações de ferro, o perfil de expressão de alguns genes de X. fastidiosa que possam ser integrantes do stimulon do ferro; (iii) analisar o efeito da concentração de ferro no crescimento e formação de biofilme por X. fastidiosa. Observamos que X. fastidiosa parece produzir um composto quelante de ferro que pode ser um sideróforo e elencamos alguns genes que poderiam estar envolvidos na síntese desse composto. Confirmamos que ferro é necessário para o crescimento de X. fastidiosa, sendo que em alta concentração de ferro foi observada maior deposição de biofilme pela cultura bacteriana. Interessantemente também foi observado que as células crescidas em meio com pouco ferro secretaram mais exopolissacarídeos totais na fração do biofilme, o que estabelece uma relação entre as concentrações de ferro no meio com a expressão de um fator de virulência essencial para o desenvolvimento da infecção por X. fastidiosa. / Iron is an essential nutrient for bacteria, being involved in many metabolic processes. Despite its low solubility, bacteria present efficient and specific systems for uptake, utilization and storage of iron, meanwhile controlling metal concentration adequately to prevent potential toxic effects of free iron. Xylella fastidiosa is a Gram-negative bacterium which colonizes the xylem of a wide range of crops and wild species of plants worldwide. This bacterium is the agent of several diseases affecting economically important crops, such as citrus, grapevine and coffee. Among the proposed X. fastidiosa virulence mechanisms is the formation of biofilm which may occlude xylem vessels causing hydric stress. It is postulated that iron uptake might cause reduction of its concentration within the xylem of infected plants therefore constituting a virulence strategy during bacterial infection process. Our aims in this work were to investigate the process of iron uptake in X. fastidiosa and to evaluate the effect of iron concentration in the growth and morphology of this bacterium, expanding previous studies. For this we set to: (i) investigate the capacity of X. fastidiosa in producing siderophores, small biomolecules utilized for iron quelation; (ii) evaluate, under culture conditions at different iron concentrations, the expression profile of candidate genes that might be part of the iron stimulon; (iii) analyse the effect of iron concentration in growth and biofilm formation of X. fastidiosa. We observed that X. fastidiosa seems to produce a compound with iron quelating ability, such as a siderophore, and we point to a group of genes that might be involved in the synthesis of this compound. We confirmed that iron is necessary for growth of X. fastidiosa. At high concentrations of iron we observed higher biofilm production. Interestingly, we also observed that when grown in low iron concentration, X. fastidiosa secretes more exopolysaccharides (EPS) associated with the biofilm, suggesting a link between iron concentration and expression of an essential virulence factor to the infection process of X. fastidiosa.

This thesis is concerned with the role of iron in modulating right ventricular (RV) afterload during exercise in healthy people aged between 50 and 80 years. This is predicated on the requirement of the hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) pathway for ferrous iron. A secondary objective is to examine the reactive oxygen species (ROS) hypothesis in human hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction (HPV) using exposure to hyperoxia. Chapters 3 and 4 describe basal relationships that may affect the HIF pathway and exercise capacity during ageing. These were explored in 113 participants using blood tests and exercise tests. Age and inflammatory factors, C-reactive protein, and ferritin were associated with impaired exercise capacity. In addition, ageing did not significantly affect haematological variables or iron status indicators. Chapters 5 and 6 describe the effect of a single intravenous iron infusion on the haematological variables in 32 participants in a randomised, placebo-controlled and double-blinded study. The effects of iron infusion on RV afterload during light exercise, and exercise capacity during heavy exercise, were examined in these participants. With iron infusion, erythropoietin production, and the increase in RV afterload during light exercise were blunted, potentially indicating involvement of the HIF pathway. However, blunting of RV afterload neither influenced the cardiac output during light exercise nor exercise capacity. Chapter 7 describes a study of 11 healthy volunteers, which investigated the ROS hypothesis in HPV using acute isocapnic hypoxia following an 8-hour exposure to hyperoxia. This sustained hyperoxic exposure did not influence the hypoxic behavior of the pulmonary vasculature. This thesis demonstrates the complex relationship between iron status and exercise capacity in older adults. It shows that the decrease in RV afterload during exercise caused by intravenous iron supplementation does not lead to an augmented cardiac output or exercise capacity. Finally, it calls into question the role of ROS in HPV.

Le fer (Fe) est un élément indispensable à la vie. Sa capacité à perdre ou à gagner un électron lui permet d’être un cofacteur de choix pour de nombreuses réactions enzymatiques telles que la photosynthèse, la synthèse d’ADN ou la respiration. Cependant, le fer est très réactif et potentiellement toxique pour la cellule. Les plantes doivent donc strictement réguler leur homéostasie en fer afin d’éviter toute carence ou tout excès préjudiciable pour leur organisme. Parmi les acteurs du maintien de l’équilibre ferrique, les ferritines jouent un rôle majeur. Chez les végétaux, elles sont principalement régulées transcriptionnellement. Le gène modèle des ferritines, AtFER1, est régulé par au moins trois voies indépendantes (l’excès de fer, la carence en phosphate, et l’alternance jour/nuit). Toutefois, la façon dont ces signaux s’intègrent au niveau de son promoteur n’est pas formellement établie. Mon travail a consisté à mettre en place une étude fonctionnelle du promoteur d’AtFER1 en caractérisant des lignées stables d’Arabidopsis thaliana exprimant le gène rapporteur GUS (β-glucuronidase) sous le contrôle de différentes versions du promoteur d’AtFER1 (délétions en 5’ et en 3’, mutagenèse dirigée) selon différents traitements (e.g. disponibilité en fer). Cette approche a mis en évidence le rôle clef de certains éléments cis du promoteur. Des cribles simple hybride chez la levure sur ces éléments ont permis l’identification du facteur de transcription bHLH105/ILR3 comme régulateur potentiel d’AtFER1. Une caractérisation moléculaire et physiologique des mutants ilr3 a démontré l’implication de ce facteur dans la réponse des plantes à l’excès de fer. Elle a aussi mis en évidence qu’ILR3 avait un rôle central d’intégrateur dans l’homéostasie du fer chez les plantes. D’autre part, des données suggéraient qu’un long ARN non codant (At5g01595) pouvait potentiellement réguler AtFER1. Une caractérisation des mécanismes potentiellement impliqués a démontré que cette régulation n’était pas avérée.Les mécanismes moléculaires et physiologiques mis en place par les végétaux en réponse à une carence en fer sont relativement bien décrits. A l’inverse, peu d’informations sur la réponse des plantes à un « excès » de fer sont disponibles. Dans ce contexte, une expérience visant à décrypter, au niveau du transcriptome (puces à ADN), la dynamique de la réponse précoce (de quelques minutes à 2 heures) à un excès de fer a été mise en place. Une analyse de variance a été réalisée sur les données d’expression générées afin d’identifier les gènes dont l’expression est affectée par le traitement. Nous nous sommes plus particulièrement focalisés sur l’identification de facteurs de transcription, acteurs majeurs du maintien de l’homéostasie du fer. Parmi eux, WRKY33, WRKY40, ZAT10 et MYB51, tous liés à la réponse au ROS, semblent avoir un rôle clé dans la réponse précoce au fer.D’autre part, un mécanisme clé de l’homéostasie du fer est le prélèvement. Une précédente étude a montré que la nutrition en fer était facilitée par la synthèse et la sécrétion de composés phénoliques via le transporteur PDR9. Une caractérisation des mutants pdr9 a permis d’établir que d’une part (i) ses composés pouvaient être stockés dans les vacuoles des cellules racinaires, et d’autre part (ii) qu’ils permettaient l’entrée de fer via le système de prélèvement gouverné par le mécanisme FRO2/IRT1.Mes travaux de thèse ont permis d’apporter des éléments nouveaux sur les mécanismes moléculaires et physiologiques impliqués dans le contrôle de l’homéostasie du fer chez Arabidopsis. / Iron (Fe) is an essential micronutrient required for life. Since it can transfer electrons, Fe is a crucial cofactor for several enzymatic reactions such as photosynthesis, DNA synthesis or respiration. However, Fe is potentially toxic for the cells as it can react with oxygen and generate ROS (Reactive Oxygen Species). Therefore plants have evolved robust strategies to monitor Fe homeostasis in order to avoid Fe deficiency or excess that could be detrimental for their growth and development. Among the molecular actors involved in Fe homeostasis sensing, ferritins are central actors. In plants, ferritins are mainly transcriptionally regulated. AtFER1 (model of ferritin genes in Arabidopsis thaliana) is regulated by at least three independent environmental pathways (Fe excess, phosphate deficiency and diurnal/circadian rhythms). However, how these environmental signals are integrated at AtFER1 promoter remains elusive. During my PhD, I have functionally characterized the AtFER1 promoter in different growth conditions (i.e. Fe availability), using GUS as a reporter gene. This approach leads to the identification of specific cis-regulatory sequences within the AtFER1 promoter. Yeast one-hybrid screens using these cis-regulatory elements allowed the identification of the transcription factor bHLH105/ILR3 as putative transcriptional regulator of AtFER1 expression. In addition, molecular and physiological characterization of ilr3 mutants (gain- and loss-of-function mutations) brought out the involvement of ILR3 in plant responses to Fe excess and confirmed that ILR3 is a central integrator of Fe homeostasis in plants. I have also investigated the potential role of a long non-coding RNA in controlling AtFER1 expression. A deep characterization of the mechanisms potentially involved in this process demonstrated that this long non-coding RNA is most probably not involved in the control of AtFER1 expression. The molecular mechanisms by which plants face and adapt against Fe deficiency are well documented, however, very few data are available with regard to Fe excess. In this context, we set up a transcriptome analysis (microarrays) aiming at deciphering the dynamics of the early response (i.e. prior AtFER1 expression is induced) to an excess of Fe in A. thaliana. An analysis of variance was performed on the expression data generated in order to identify genes whose expression is affected by the treatment. We particularly focused on the identification of transcription factors that are major players in the regulation of gene expression in response to Fe and ROS excess. Among them, WRKY33, WRKY40, ZAT10 and MYB51 have been identified. Finally, I have been investigating the mode of action of PDR9, a transporter involved in the secretion of phenolic compounds in response to Fe deficiency. Through the characterization of pdr9 mutants, I have shown that the secreted phenolic compounds (i) allow the entrance of Fe via the FRO2 / IRT1 mechanism and (ii) that these compounds are stored in the vacuoles of the root cells before secretion.In conclusion, my PhD brings new elements on the molecular and physiological mechanisms involved in maintaining Fe homeostasis in Arabidopsis.

O ferro é essencial para a sobrevivência das bactérias, estando envolvido em vários processos metabólicos. Apesar de sua baixa solubilidade, as bactérias dispõem de sistemas eficientes e específicos para captação, utilização e armazenamento desse metal, ao mesmo tempo controlando adequadamente a concentração de ferro livre no meio, para evitar seus potenciais efeitos tóxicos. Xylella fastidiosa é uma bactéria gram-negativa que coloniza o xilema de uma diversidade de plantas cultivadas e silvestres em várias partes do mundo, sendo o agente causador de uma série de doenças em plantas economicamente importantes como citros, videiras e café. Alguns mecanismos de virulência de X. fastidiosa já foram elencados, entre esses a formação de biofilme, que promoveria a oclusão do xilema e consequente estresse hídrico para a planta. Postula-se que a captação de ferro por X. fastidiosa, causando redução da concentração desse metal no xilema das plantas infectadas, seja uma das estratégias utilizadas pela bactéria em seu processo de infecção. Nosso objetivo neste trabalho foi de investigar o processo de captação de ferro por X. fastidiosa e avaliar em maior detalhe o efeito da concentração de ferro no crescimento e na expressão de fatores de virulência dessa bactéria, expandindo os estudos anteriormente realizados em nosso grupo. Para tal propusemos: (i) avaliar a capacidade de X. fastidiosa produzir sideróforos, pequenas moléculas quelantes de ferro; (ii) investigar, em condições de cultivo com diferentes concentrações de ferro, o perfil de expressão de alguns genes de X. fastidiosa que possam ser integrantes do stimulon do ferro; (iii) analisar o efeito da concentração de ferro no crescimento e formação de biofilme por X. fastidiosa. Observamos que X. fastidiosa parece produzir um composto quelante de ferro que pode ser um sideróforo e elencamos alguns genes que poderiam estar envolvidos na síntese desse composto. Confirmamos que ferro é necessário para o crescimento de X. fastidiosa, sendo que em alta concentração de ferro foi observada maior deposição de biofilme pela cultura bacteriana. Interessantemente também foi observado que as células crescidas em meio com pouco ferro secretaram mais exopolissacarídeos totais na fração do biofilme, o que estabelece uma relação entre as concentrações de ferro no meio com a expressão de um fator de virulência essencial para o desenvolvimento da infecção por X. fastidiosa. / Iron is an essential nutrient for bacteria, being involved in many metabolic processes. Despite its low solubility, bacteria present efficient and specific systems for uptake, utilization and storage of iron, meanwhile controlling metal concentration adequately to prevent potential toxic effects of free iron. Xylella fastidiosa is a Gram-negative bacterium which colonizes the xylem of a wide range of crops and wild species of plants worldwide. This bacterium is the agent of several diseases affecting economically important crops, such as citrus, grapevine and coffee. Among the proposed X. fastidiosa virulence mechanisms is the formation of biofilm which may occlude xylem vessels causing hydric stress. It is postulated that iron uptake might cause reduction of its concentration within the xylem of infected plants therefore constituting a virulence strategy during bacterial infection process. Our aims in this work were to investigate the process of iron uptake in X. fastidiosa and to evaluate the effect of iron concentration in the growth and morphology of this bacterium, expanding previous studies. For this we set to: (i) investigate the capacity of X. fastidiosa in producing siderophores, small biomolecules utilized for iron quelation; (ii) evaluate, under culture conditions at different iron concentrations, the expression profile of candidate genes that might be part of the iron stimulon; (iii) analyse the effect of iron concentration in growth and biofilm formation of X. fastidiosa. We observed that X. fastidiosa seems to produce a compound with iron quelating ability, such as a siderophore, and we point to a group of genes that might be involved in the synthesis of this compound. We confirmed that iron is necessary for growth of X. fastidiosa. At high concentrations of iron we observed higher biofilm production. Interestingly, we also observed that when grown in low iron concentration, X. fastidiosa secretes more exopolysaccharides (EPS) associated with the biofilm, suggesting a link between iron concentration and expression of an essential virulence factor to the infection process of X. fastidiosa.

A pouca solubilidade do ferro impõe desafios para sua captação por bactérias e outros organismos. Uma solução eficaz para este problema é a utilização de sideróforos próprios ou exógenos para solubilizar o ferro do ambiente ou de proteínas do hospedeiro e transportá-lo para o interior da célula bacteriana. Neste trabalho, identificamos vias de produção e captação de ferro por sideróforos e definimos o papel destas moléculas na virulência da bactéria Chromobacterium violaceum, um abundante componente da microbiota de solo e água que ocasionalmente causa graves infecções em humanos. Por meio de análises in silico, vários genes relacionados com a síntese e captação de sideróforos foram encontrados no genoma de C. violaceum ATCC 12472 em dois clusters de síntese de metabólitos secundários. Obtenção de linhagens mutantes de vários destes genes e caracterização destas linhagens por ensaios de CAS, curvas de crescimento em carência de ferro e ensaios de estimulação de crescimento revelaram que C. violaceum produz sideróforos endógenos. Essa produção mostrou-se dependente do percursor comum 2,3-DHBA produzido pelas enzimas codificadas pelos genes entCEBA (CV_1485-84-83-82) e de duas enzimas sintetases de peptídeo não ribossomais (NRPSs CV_1486 e CV_2233), as quais provavelmente montam dois sideróforos distintos do tipo catecolato. Cada sideróforo foi captado por um receptor dependente de TonB (RDTB) específico, com o sideróforo produzido via NRPS CV_1486 sendo captado pelo RDTB CV_1491, e o sideróforo produzido via NRPS CV_2233 sendo captado pelo RDTB CV_2230, uma vez que mutantes sem esses RDTBs acumularam sideróforos no meio externo no ensaio de CAS. Além de seus sideróforos endógenos, C. violaceum foi capaz de utilizar xenosideróforos do tipo catecolato de outras bactérias via o RDTB CV_1491. Ensaios de infecção em camundongos revelaram que tanto a síntese quanto a captação de seus sideróforos endógenos são importantes para a virulência de C. violaceum, pois as linhagens mutantes que não produzem sideróforos (?CV_1485-84- 83-82, ?CV_1485-84-83-82/1486::pNPT e ?CV_1486/2233::pNPT) ou são incapazes8 de captá-los (?CV_2230/1491) tiveram sua virulência diminuída em relação a linhagem selvagem. Os dados mostrando que o mutante que não capta ambos sideróforos de C. violaceum teve atenuação mais acentuada da virulência e induziu menor produção de NET em ensaios com neutrófilos in vitro sugerem que o acúmulo de sideróforos na infecção pode ser benéfico para o hospedeiro. Por fim, demonstramos a possibilidade de gerar mutantes de transposon em C. violaceum e ao realizarmos varredura de uma coleção destes mutantes identificamos ao menos um potencial novo fator de transcrição envolvido na regulação da síntese de sideróforo nesta bactéria. Portanto, os dados obtidos neste trabalho revelaram que C. violaceum utiliza-se de diferentes sideróforos endógenos para captação de ferro e que estas moléculas são importantes para seu estabelecimento no hospedeiro. / The low solubility of iron imposes challenges for its uptake by bacteria and other organisms. An effective solution to this problem is the use of own or exogenous siderophores to solubilize the iron from environmental or host sources and transport it into the bacterial cell. In this work, we identified pathways for production and uptake of siderophores, and we defined the role of these molecules in virulence of the bacterium Chromobacterium violaceum, an abundant component of the microbiota of soil and water, which occasionally causes serious infections in humans. By performing an in silico analysis, we found several genes related with synthesis and uptake of siderophores in the genome of C. violaceum ATCC 12472 within two secondary metabolite biosynthesis gene clusters. Obtaining mutant strains from several of these genes and characterizing these strains by CAS assays, growth curves under iron deficiency and growth stimulation assays revealed that C. violaceum produces endogenous siderophores. This production was shown to be dependent on the common precursor 2,3-DHBA produced by the enzymes encoded by the genes entCEBA (CV_1485-84-83-82) and on two non-ribosomal peptide synthetase enzymes (NRPSs CV_1486 and CV_2233), which probably build two distinct catecholate siderophores. Each siderophore was picked up by a specific TonB-dependent receptor (RDTB), with the siderophore produced via NRPS CV_1486 being picked up by RDTB CV_1491, and the siderophore produced via NRPS CV_2233 being picked up by RDTB CV_2230, since mutants without those RDTBs accumulated siderophores in the external environment in the CAS assays. In addition to its endogenous siderophores, C. violaceum was able to use catecholate-type xenosiderophores from other bacteria via the RDTB CV_1491. Infection assays in mice revealed that both the synthesis and the uptake of its endogenous siderophores are important for the virulence of C. violaceum, since mutant strains that do not produce siderophores (?CV_1485-84-83- 82, ?CV_1485-84-83- 82/1486 :: pNPT and ?CV_1486/2233 :: pNPT) or are unable to uptake them (?CV_2230/1491) had their virulence decreased relative to the wild type strain. The data showing that the mutant strain unable to uptake both siderophores of10 C. violaceum had more pronounced attenuation of virulence and induced lower NET production in in vitro neutrophil assays suggest that the accumulation of siderophores in the infection may be beneficial to the host. Finally, we demonstrated the possibility of generating transposon mutants in C. violaceum, and by screening a collection of these mutants we identified at least one potential novel transcription factor involved in the regulation of siderophore synthesis in this bacterium. Therefore, the data obtained in this work revealed that C. violaceum uses different endogenous siderophores for iron uptake and that these molecules are important for its establishment in the host.

Les neurodégénérescences avec accumulation de fer dans le cerveau (Neurodegeneration with Brain Iron Accumulation, NBIA) sont des maladies neurodégénératives progressives, génétiquement hétérogènes. On connait actuellement 11 gènes de ces maladies mais pour la plupart d’entre eux leur lien avec l’accumulation en fer est encore incompris. Ce travail de thèse présente deux nouveaux gènes de NBIA identifiés par séquençage d’exome dans deux familles indépendantes. Le premier gène, REPS1, est impliqué dans le recyclage de l’endosome. Les fibroblastes de patients sont caractérisés par une accumulation de fer qui est corrigée par l’expression de l’ADNc de REPS1 dans ces cellules. Le deuxième gène, CRAT, code une carnitine acétyltransferase et le déficit de β-oxydation détecté dans les fibroblastes du patient a été corrigé par l’expression de l’ADNc CRAT normal. Le rôle de REPS1 dans le recyclage de l’endosome a mis sur la voie du mécanisme physiopathologique des NBIA. En effet, les fibroblastes des patients REPS1 et CRAT mais aussi d’autres patients avec des mutations d’autres gènes connus de NBIA (PANK2, PLA2G6, FA2H, C19ORF12) ont une accumulation massive en fer et une anomalie de recyclage du récepteur à la transferrine (TfR1). TfR1 permet l’entrée du fer par endocytose et son expression est régulée par le contenu en fer des cellules. La seule régulation connue de l’homéostasie du fer se fait au niveau post-transcriptionnel par le système IRP/IRE qui est fonctionnel dans les fibroblastes NBIA alors que la protéine TfR1 s’accumule. Cette accumulation de fer montre ainsi qu’il existe une régulation post-traductionnelle, jusqu’ici inconnue, et qui n’est pas fonctionnelle dans les NBIA. Nous avons pu montrer que cette régulation se faisait par une palmitoylation du TfR1, déficitaire dans les NBIA, mais restaurée par l’artesunate. Ainsi quel que soit le gène muté, tous les NBIA résultent d’une anomalie de recyclage du TfR1 permettant de les définir comme des maladies du trafic intracellulaire. La deuxième partie de la thèse s’intéresse au mécanisme physiopathologique de l’ataxie de Friedreich (FRDA) caractérisée elle aussi par une accumulation de fer dans le cerveau. FRDA est due à des expansions de triplets dans le premier intron du gène FXN conduisant à l’extinction de FXN et de PIP5K1B situé en amont. L’étude de modèles cellulaires dans lesquels le gène FXN et/ou PIP5K1B ont été éteints par siRNA et de fibroblastes de patients a permis de mettre en évidence une anomalie de l’homéostasie du fer qui rappelle celle observée dans les NBIA. L’ensemble de ces résultats a permis de comprendre le mécanisme physiopathologique des NBIA, de mettre à jour une régulation encore inconnue de l’homéostasie du fer mais aussi d’envisager une voie de traitement des NBIA. / Neurodegeneration with brain iron accumulation (NBIA) encompasses a group of rare neurogenerative disorders with different clinical and molecular features, underlined by progressive extrapyramidal dysfunction and iron accumulation in the brain. To date, mutations in 11 genes are currently known. Nevertheless for most of them their link with iron accumulation is still misunderstood. This work presents two novel NBIA genes identified by exome sequencing in two independent families. The first gene, REPS1, is involved in endosome recycling. Patient’s fibroblasts are characterized by iron overload corrected by wild-type REPS1 cDNA overexpression. The second gene, CRAT, encodes a carnitine acetyltransferase and a β-oxidation deficit in patient’s fibroblasts has been fixed by overexpression of wild-type CRAT cDNA. The function of REPS1 in endosome recycling put on the path of the NBIA pathophysiological mechanism. Indeed, fibroblasts of REPS1 patients but also from other patients mutated in various NBIA genes (CRAT, PANK2, PLA2G6, FA2H, C19ORF12) present massive iron accumulation and abnormal transferrin receptor (TfR1) recycling. TfR1 allows iron uptake by endocytosis and its expression is regulated by the iron cellular status. The only known regulation of iron homeostasis occurs at the posttranscriptional level by the IRE/IRP system which is functional in NBIA fibroblasts whereas TfR1 protein accumulates. This iron accumulation highlights a yet unknown posttranslational regulation which is not functional in NBIA. We have been able to demonstrate that this regulation occurs via TfR1 palmitoylation, which is defective in NBIA, but restored by artesunate. Hence, whatever the disease gene, all NBIA gave rise to abnormal TfR1 recycling which allows defining NBIA as intracellular trafficking disease. The second part of the thesis focused on the pathophysiological mechanism of the Friedreich ataxia (FRDA) also characterized by brain iron overload . FRDA is related to triplets expansions in the first intron of FXN gene leading to the extinction of FXN and PIP5K1B upstream gene. Studying cellular models knocked down for FXN and/or PIP5K1B by siRNA and patients’ fibroblasts of patients allowed to detect abnormal iron homeostasis reminiscent of NBIA. All these results allowed to decipher the NBIA pathophysiological mechanism, to highlight a yet unknown iron homeostasis regulation and to open possible ways towards therapeutic drugs for NBIA.

A pouca solubilidade do ferro impõe desafios para sua captação por bactérias e outros organismos. Uma solução eficaz para este problema é a utilização de sideróforos próprios ou exógenos para solubilizar o ferro do ambiente ou de proteínas do hospedeiro e transportá-lo para o interior da célula bacteriana. Neste trabalho, identificamos vias de produção e captação de ferro por sideróforos e definimos o papel destas moléculas na virulência da bactéria Chromobacterium violaceum, um abundante componente da microbiota de solo e água que ocasionalmente causa graves infecções em humanos. Por meio de análises in silico, vários genes relacionados com a síntese e captação de sideróforos foram encontrados no genoma de C. violaceum ATCC 12472 em dois clusters de síntese de metabólitos secundários. Obtenção de linhagens mutantes de vários destes genes e caracterização destas linhagens por ensaios de CAS, curvas de crescimento em carência de ferro e ensaios de estimulação de crescimento revelaram que C. violaceum produz sideróforos endógenos. Essa produção mostrou-se dependente do percursor comum 2,3-DHBA produzido pelas enzimas codificadas pelos genes entCEBA (CV_1485-84-83-82) e de duas enzimas sintetases de peptídeo não ribossomais (NRPSs CV_1486 e CV_2233), as quais provavelmente montam dois sideróforos distintos do tipo catecolato. Cada sideróforo foi captado por um receptor dependente de TonB (RDTB) específico, com o sideróforo produzido via NRPS CV_1486 sendo captado pelo RDTB CV_1491, e o sideróforo produzido via NRPS CV_2233 sendo captado pelo RDTB CV_2230, uma vez que mutantes sem esses RDTBs acumularam sideróforos no meio externo no ensaio de CAS. Além de seus sideróforos endógenos, C. violaceum foi capaz de utilizar xenosideróforos do tipo catecolato de outras bactérias via o RDTB CV_1491. Ensaios de infecção em camundongos revelaram que tanto a síntese quanto a captação de seus sideróforos endógenos são importantes para a virulência de C. violaceum, pois as linhagens mutantes que não produzem sideróforos (?CV_1485-84- 83-82, ?CV_1485-84-83-82/1486::pNPT e ?CV_1486/2233::pNPT) ou são incapazes8 de captá-los (?CV_2230/1491) tiveram sua virulência diminuída em relação a linhagem selvagem. Os dados mostrando que o mutante que não capta ambos sideróforos de C. violaceum teve atenuação mais acentuada da virulência e induziu menor produção de NET em ensaios com neutrófilos in vitro sugerem que o acúmulo de sideróforos na infecção pode ser benéfico para o hospedeiro. Por fim, demonstramos a possibilidade de gerar mutantes de transposon em C. violaceum e ao realizarmos varredura de uma coleção destes mutantes identificamos ao menos um potencial novo fator de transcrição envolvido na regulação da síntese de sideróforo nesta bactéria. Portanto, os dados obtidos neste trabalho revelaram que C. violaceum utiliza-se de diferentes sideróforos endógenos para captação de ferro e que estas moléculas são importantes para seu estabelecimento no hospedeiro. / The low solubility of iron imposes challenges for its uptake by bacteria and other organisms. An effective solution to this problem is the use of own or exogenous siderophores to solubilize the iron from environmental or host sources and transport it into the bacterial cell. In this work, we identified pathways for production and uptake of siderophores, and we defined the role of these molecules in virulence of the bacterium Chromobacterium violaceum, an abundant component of the microbiota of soil and water, which occasionally causes serious infections in humans. By performing an in silico analysis, we found several genes related with synthesis and uptake of siderophores in the genome of C. violaceum ATCC 12472 within two secondary metabolite biosynthesis gene clusters. Obtaining mutant strains from several of these genes and characterizing these strains by CAS assays, growth curves under iron deficiency and growth stimulation assays revealed that C. violaceum produces endogenous siderophores. This production was shown to be dependent on the common precursor 2,3-DHBA produced by the enzymes encoded by the genes entCEBA (CV_1485-84-83-82) and on two non-ribosomal peptide synthetase enzymes (NRPSs CV_1486 and CV_2233), which probably build two distinct catecholate siderophores. Each siderophore was picked up by a specific TonB-dependent receptor (RDTB), with the siderophore produced via NRPS CV_1486 being picked up by RDTB CV_1491, and the siderophore produced via NRPS CV_2233 being picked up by RDTB CV_2230, since mutants without those RDTBs accumulated siderophores in the external environment in the CAS assays. In addition to its endogenous siderophores, C. violaceum was able to use catecholate-type xenosiderophores from other bacteria via the RDTB CV_1491. Infection assays in mice revealed that both the synthesis and the uptake of its endogenous siderophores are important for the virulence of C. violaceum, since mutant strains that do not produce siderophores (?CV_1485-84-83- 82, ?CV_1485-84-83- 82/1486 :: pNPT and ?CV_1486/2233 :: pNPT) or are unable to uptake them (?CV_2230/1491) had their virulence decreased relative to the wild type strain. The data showing that the mutant strain unable to uptake both siderophores of10 C. violaceum had more pronounced attenuation of virulence and induced lower NET production in in vitro neutrophil assays suggest that the accumulation of siderophores in the infection may be beneficial to the host. Finally, we demonstrated the possibility of generating transposon mutants in C. violaceum, and by screening a collection of these mutants we identified at least one potential novel transcription factor involved in the regulation of siderophore synthesis in this bacterium. Therefore, the data obtained in this work revealed that C. violaceum uses different endogenous siderophores for iron uptake and that these molecules are important for its establishment in the host.

Eisenmangel ist ein weltweites Ernährungsproblem für Pflanzen und allen von Ihnen abhängigen Sekundärkonsumenten. Er reduziert den Ertrag, die Qualität und Produktivität von z.B. Kulturpflanzen, was wiederum zu Mangelerscheinungen beim Menschen führen kann. Die Nahrungsmittelforschung hat ein großes ökonomisches und wirtschaftliches Interesse daran, die Eisenverfügbarkeit und -Aufnahme der Pflanzen zu erhöhen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde eine kleine Familie von fünf (VTL1-5) neuen potentiellen Eisentransportern in Arabidopsis thaliana identifiziert und charakterisiert und somit ein weiterer Baustein zu der Aufklärung der Eisenhomöostase hinzugefügt. Bei den fünf Transportern handelt es sich um CCC1-like Proteine, von denen vier (VTL1-3 und 5) eine eisenabhängig regulierte Expression zeigen. Für VTL1 kann mittels Protein-tag Markierung sehr überzeugend eine Lokalisation in der Vakuolenmembran und ein damit verbundener Eisentransport in die Vakuole, analog zur Funktion von VIT1, gezeigt werden. Da vermutlich ein knockout von VTL1 zur Embryo Lethalität führt und auch die vit1-1 Mutante einen sehr verkümmerten Phänotyp unter Eisenmangel zeigt, scheinen beide Proteine getrennt voneinander an verschiedenen Schlüsselpositionen im Eisenhaushalt zu wirken. Auch für VTL2 und VTL5 kann eine Lokalisation an der Vakuolenmembran und der damit verbundene Eisenimport postuliert werden. Die heterologe Expression aller drei Gene in ∆ccc1 Zellen führt zur Erhöhung der vakuolären Eisenkonzentration. Für VTL4 wird mittels Protein-tag Markierung eine Lokalisation an der Plasmamembran mit einer Exportfunktion vorgeschlagen. VTL3 und VTL4 heterolog exprimierende ∆ccc1 Hefe-Zellen weisen einen geringeren Eisengehalt als Kontrollzellen auf. Alle fünf Proteine sind in der Lage sowohl den Mutanten-Phänotyp der ∆ccc1 Hefe-Mutante, wie auch der Arabidopsis vit1-1 und nramp3/nramp4 Doppelmutante zu komplementieren. Anhand dieser Tatsachen konnte die Eisentransportfähigkeit bewiesen werden. / Iron deficiency is a worldwide nutritional problem for plants and in general all heterotrophic organisms. Iron deficiency reduces crop productivity, quality and yield, which in consequence lead to iron deficiency symptoms in humans. Because approximately 50 % of the global human caloric intake is derived from a cereal grain diet, it is not surprising that the emphasis of nutrition research is on uptake, transport and storage of iron in plants, specifically in seeds. In this doctoral thesis a small family of five potential iron transporters (VTL1-5) in Arabidopsis thaliana has been identified and characterized. These five transporters are CCC1-like proteins, four of which (VTL1-3, 5) show a pattern of iron-dependent expression. Through the use of a protein tag, VTL1 is shown to be localized on the vacuolar membrane and associated with import of iron into the vacuole. In this respect VTL1 displays an analogous function to VIT1. Since the knockout of VTL1 likely leads to embryo lethality and seedlings of the vit1-1 mutant display an ephemeral phenotype caused by iron deficiency, both proteins seem to uniquely influence the iron homeostasis. As for VTL1 both VTL2 and VTL5 are localized on the vacuolar membrane and catalyze iron import. The heterologous expression of all three genes in ∆ccc1 cells leads to an increased vacuolar iron concentration. In contrast, VTL3 and VTL4 may function as iron exporters and play possibly roles in xylem loading. This conclusion is supported by the facts that a mCherry-VTL4 signal is localized to the plasma membrane of tobacco leaf cells and that ∆ccc1 cells in which VTL3 and VTL4 are heterologous expressed, show a decreased iron content compared to control cells. All five proteins are able to complement the ∆ccc1 yeast mutant and the two Arabidopsis vit1-1 and nramp3/nramp4 mutant phenotypes, thereby demonstrating a function in iron transport.

L'utilisation des ressources en fer et les variations du potentiel redox sont des processus impliqués dans la prolifération et la différenciation cellulaire. Ils participent à l'hématopoïèse normale et leur dérégulation peut être associée à des conditions pathologiques. Les hémopathies, telles que la leucémie aiguë myéloïde (LAM), témoignent du lien entre disponibilité en fer, signalisation redox et leucémogenèse. La déplétion en fer induit un arrêt de la prolifération suivi de la mort cellulaire, et pour des cellules primaires leucémiques (blastes) de patients LAM, elle peut conduire à un réengagement de la différenciation vers la lignée monocytaire. Cependant, les besoins en fer des clones leucémiques restent mal définis. Dans les cellules animales, le cœur du réseau de régulation du fer est organisé à travers le système régulateur IRE-IRP. Les Iron Regulatory Proteins (IRP), agissent sur la traduction de nombreuses protéines impliquées dans la gestion du fer par interaction avec les Iron Responsive Elements (IRE) localisés sur les régions non codantes des ARN messager (ARNm) régulés. A partir de lignées cellulaires leucémiques (KG1, K562), de blastes de patients LAM et de progéniteurs CD34+ contrôles issus de sang de cordon et de moelle osseuse de donneurs sains, le statut du système de gestion cellulaire du fer a été caractérisé pour les premières étapes de l'hématopoïèse normale et pathologique. A travers la manipulation des apports cellulaires en fer, notamment par l'utilisation de chélateurs à usage thérapeutique, la réponse du système homéostatique a été suivie. Nos données soulignent les faibles besoins en fer des progéniteurs hématopoïétiques, et d'autres cellules, pour proliférer. Dans les lignées cellulaires le régulateur IRP est en excès par rapport à ses cibles IRE, ce qui pourrait être une caractéristique générale du contrôle de la traduction pour des ARNm spécifiques par fixation de régulateurs translationnels. La régulation semble exclusivement le fait d' IRP1, puisqu' IRP2 n'a pas été détecté dans les progéniteurs hématopoïétiques, qu'ils soit pathologiques ou non. De subtiles différences ont été identifiées dans les quantités des composants du réseau gérant le fer dans les cellules leucémiques en comparaison des cellules saines témoins, ainsi que des capacités différentes à croître dans un milieu minimal comportant des concentrations en fer précisément définies. Les informations obtenues à travers ce travail pourraient bénéficier à l'élaboration de protocoles thérapeutiques, incluant notamment la manipulation du fer, dans les LAM ou d'autres pathologies. / Use of iron resources and variations of the redox balance are processes involved in cell proliferation and differentiation. They participate to normal hematopoiesis and their disturbance may be associated with pathological conditions. Hematological neoplasms, such as acute myeloid leukemia (AML), provide clinical evidence of the link between iron availability, redox signaling, and malignancy. Stringent iron depletion induces arrest of proliferation followed by cell death, and deprived primary leukemic cells of AML patients (blasts) have been previously shown to engage into the monocytic lineage. Yet, the iron needs of leukemic clones are unknown. The core network of cellular iron regulation in mammals is organized around the IRE-IRP system. The Iron Regulatory Proteins (IRP) act on the translation of many proteins involved in iron management by interacting with Iron Responsive Elements (IRE) located on the untranslated regions of messenger RNA (mRNA) coding these proteins. Using leukemic cell lines (KG1, K562), blasts of AML patients and CD34+ progenitors isolated from cord blood or the bone marrow of healthy donors, the status of the iron management system was established in the first stages of normal and pathological hematopoiesis. The response of the homeostatic system upon manipulation of iron provision, including with clinically implemented chelators, has been monitored. Our data emphasize the weak iron requirements of hematopoietic progenitors, and other cells, to proliferate. In cell lines the IRP regulator is in excess of its IRE targets, which may be a general feature of translational control for specific mRNA. The regulation seems exclusively mediated by IRP1, as the IRP2 regulator has not been detected in normal or malignant hematopoietic progenitors. Subtle differences have been found in the iron handling system of leukemic cells as compared to normal cells, together with different abilities to grow on a minimal medium containing precisely defined iron concentrations. The design of improved therapeutic regimens including iron manipulation, in AML and other pathologies, may benefit from considering the information obtained in this work.

Lactobacillus sakei est une bactérie lactique qui fait partie de la flore dominante de la viande. Elle possède un équipement génétique inhabituel chez les bactéries lactiques, dédié à l'utilisation du fer : des transporteurs et 3 régulateurs de transcription fer-dépendants de la famille Fur. Nous avons i) évalué la capacité de L. sakei à utiliser les sources de fer de son environnement en développant une méthode de microanalyse du fer par microscopie (EELS) et spectrométrie de masse (Nano-SIMS), ii) réalisé une étude fonctionnelle des 3 régulateurs Fur-like et iii) réalisé une analyse transcriptomique globale en présence de transferrine ou d'hème. Ce travail a montré que le fer sous forme complexé, transferrine ou hème, était internalisé et améliorait la survie de L. sakei. Nous avons montré que la catalase hème-dépendante n'est pas l'acteur principal de cette survie car un mutant ΔkatA survit comme la souche sauvage en présence d'hème. Nos travaux ont montré aussi que le fer et l'hème induisent des réponses globales différentes. L'hème a un effet protecteur alors que le fer induit plus de stress. Nous avons mis en évidence que les 3 régulateurs Fur-like sont fonctionnellement distincts. Le régulateur Mur est impliqué dans l'homéostasie du manganèse, le PerR régule des gènes impliqués dans la réponse au stress oxydant et le Fur est impliqué dans la séquestration du fer, la morphologie des cellules et la résistance au stress. Cette étude montre que le fer et l'hème conduisent à des réponses cellulaires différentes chez L. sakei et indique que ce métabolisme pourrait être un facteur important pour la compétitivité dans l'écosystème carné. / Lactobacillus sakei is a meat-borne lactic acid bacteria. This species harbors a quite complete genetic equipment dedicated to iron utilization such putative iron transporters and 3 transcriptional iron-dependent regulators of the Fur family. We evaluate L. sakei ability to use iron sources encountered in its natural environment by i) developing an iron microanalysis method coupling microscopy (EELS) and mass spectrometry (Nano-SIMS), ii) functional study of the 3 Fur-like regulators and iii) global transcriptomic analysis in response to transferrin or heme. This work shows that iron in complexed forms (transferrin or heme) is internalized and leads to an enhanced survival in L. sakei cells. We show that the heme-dependant catalase is not the main factor implicated in this survival phenotype as the ΔkatA strain is not affected in its survival when heme is provided. Our work has revealed that heme and iron lead to different global responses. It also indicates a protecting effect of heme whereas transferrin induces stress. We show that the 3 Fur-like regulators belong to three functional families. The Mur regulator is implicated in manganese homeostasis, the PerR regulates genes implicated in the oxidative stress response and the Fur is implicated in iron storage, cells morphology and stress resistance. This study proves that heme and iron lead to different cellular responses in L. sakei and indicates that this metabolism could be an important adaptative factor in meat ecosystem.