The dissociative anesthetic ketamine has been subject to growing abuse worldwide, particularly in adolescents. This project compared the effects of ketamine in conditioned place preference and intravenous self-administration in adolescent (PND 28-50) and adult (>PND70) Sprague-Dawley rats. Cocaine served as a positive control. In CPP, adolescents demonstrated preferences for ketamine, while adults developed an aversion. In the self-administration procedure, adults acquired the behavior more rapidly, but there was no difference in the percentage of subjects reaching acquisition nor in responding under a progressive ratio schedule for either drug. The CPP results suggest that adolescents have a greater sensitivity to the rewarding and tolerance to the aversive effects of ketamine. The divergent results for ketamine in the adults may reflect differences in the two procedures. However, because cocaine produced only hedonic effects in both age groups, it also suggests unique characteristics of ketamine and differences in its effects based on age.

A Cetamina, antagonista não competitivo de receptores de glutamato do tipo NMDA, é uma substância com propriedades dissociativas originalmente utilizada como anestésico que apresenta a característica de intensificar as experiências sensoriais. Apesar de seus conhecidos efeitos sobre os aspectos cognitivos e comportamentais, poucos estudos préclínicos foram conduzidos para tentar detectar os efeitos físicos e/ou comportamentais da abstinência de Cetamina após consumo prolongado. Partindo do princípio de que os efeitos da Cetamina sobre a neurotransmissão glutamatérgica induzem alguns dos sintomas observados durante surtos esquizofrênicos, como as alucinações auditivas, e sabendo que o colículo inferior tem sua função ligada ao processamento da informação sensorial a estímulos sonoros, neste estudo avaliamos os efeitos da modulação glutamatérgica na área cortical pré-límbica (PrL) sobre os potenciais evocados auditivos eliciados (PEAs) no colículo inferior. As medidas foram realizadas no fim do tratamento, ou seja, no 14° dia, 24 horas e 6 dias após a retirada da cetamina. Em nossos resultados obtivemos que a administração local de NMDA, foi capaz de diminuir a amplitude dos PEAs, os quais foram recuperados 24 horas após. A cetamina sistêmica não foi capaz de diminuir os PEAs, uma provável consequência da interação com outros receptores além do NMDA. Os testes realizados 6 dias após a interrupção ao tratamento crônico de cetamina, demonstraram uma forma inesperada de U, diferente da curva padrão de U invertido. Além disso, encontramos que as alterações provocadas pela cetamina são dependentes dos níveis dos mecanismos dopaminérgico e glutamatérgicos. Estes resultados demonstram que o processamento auditivo no colículo inferior está sob controle direto no Pré límbico e permitem ampliar o conhecimento atual da neurobiologia por evidenciar novas informações do efeito crônico da cetamina. / Ketamine is a non-competitive NMDA receptor antagonist. It is a substance with dissociative properties originally used as anesthetic, which can intensify sensory experiences, being also capable of accentuating the psychotic state in patients with schizophrenia. Despite its known effect on cognitive aspects and behavior, there are few preclinical studies conducted to identify physical and behavioral effects of ketamine withdrawal after its long-term use. Moreover, little is known about the impact of repetitive use of ketamine on brain structures and their functioning. The inferior colliculus, part of the midbrain tectum, is mainly related to auditory information processing, sending information to the motor centers and participating in the modulation and expression of specific behaviors, such as attack and predatory. Therefore, it is related to the biological importance of sounds to survival. The auditory hallucinations induced by schizophrenic psychotic crisis has as neural correspondent the activation of inferior colliculus and cortical areas. It is not yet known which cortical area is connected to the modulation of alterations induced by electrophysiological potential registered in inferior colliculus. Considering that the effects of ketamine on glutamate neurotransmission induces the symptoms observed during schizophrenic psychotic crisis, such as auditory hallucinations, and that inferior colliculus is related to the sensory information processing and auditory pathways, the present work evaluates the effects of glutamate modulation on pre-limbic cortical area on auditory evoked potential startle in inferior colliculus of rats tested during and after interruption of chronic treatment with ketamine

A ketamina, antagonista não competitivo de receptores NMDA, apresenta potentes efeitos psicomiméticos, sendo capaz de acentuar o estado psicótico de pacientes esquizofrênicos. Uma das áreas cerebrais afetadas por seu uso é o córtex pré-frontal, já que o desempenho em tarefas que dependem de sua atividade é profundamente alterado pela administração aguda de ketamina. Assim como na esquizofrenia, estas alterações podem sofrer influência de fatores hormonais, alterações estas que podem ser explicadas pelos efeitos dos hormônios sexuais femininos, como o estrogênio, os quais apresentam um papel regulador sobre os sistemas dopaminérgicos, serotonérgicos, glutamatérgicos e GABAérgicos, todos afetados pelos efeitos agudos e crônicos do uso de ketamina. Este projeto, portanto, teve como meta avaliar os possíveis efeitos da administração crônica e retirada de ketamina sobre a expressão de comportamentos relacionados à ansiedade humana em ratas da linhagem Wistar, assim como a influência dos hormônios estradiol e a progesterona sobre esta variável. As possíveis alterações farmacológicas induzidas pela administração crônica de ketamina sobre os sistemas dopaminérgicos e serotoninérgicos da divisão pré-límbica (PrL) do córtex pré-frontal medial serão avaliadas através da injeção local de antagonista/agonista específicos. Nossos dados reforçam a ideia de que a ketamina demonstra de forma significativa a expressão da resposta aprendida de medo. E também, os dados mostram que a abstinência da droga altera este comportamento, particularmente a capacidade cognitiva relacionada ao encadeamento de estímulos. Da mesma forma que outras drogas de abuso, estas alterações parecem envolver tanto o sistema dopaminérgico quanto serotoninérgico do CPFm. / Ketamine, a non-competitive antagonist of NMDA receptors, has potent psychomimetic effects, being able to accentuate the psychotic state of schizophrenic patients. One of the brain areas affected by its use is the prefrontal cortex, since performance in tasks that depend on its activity is profoundly altered by the acute administration of ketamine. As in schizophrenia, these changes may be influenced by hormonal factors, which can be explained by the effects of female sex hormones, such as estrogen, which play a role in the dopaminergic, serotonergic, glutamatergic and GABAergic systems, all affected acute and chronic effects of ketamine use. This project therefore aimed to evaluate the possible effects of chronic administration and withdrawal of ketamine on the expression of behaviors related to human anxiety in Wistar rats, as well as the influence of the hormones estradiol and progesterone on this variable. The possible pharmacological changes induced by chronic ketamine administration on the dopaminergic and serotonergic systems of the prelambial (PrL) division of the medial prefrontal cortex will be assessed by specific local antagonist / agonist injection. Our data reinforce the idea that ketamine demonstrates significantly the expression of the learned response of fear. Also, the data show that drug abstinence alters this behavior, particularly the cognitive capacity related to the chaining of stimuli. Like other drugs of abuse, these changes appear to involve both the dopaminergic and serotonergic system of CPFm.

The heterogeneity intrinsic to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) is evidenced in both its anatomy and implicated function: vmPFC subregions have roles in positive affect, negative affect and autonomic/endocrine regulation. Whether different subregions serve fundamentally different functions, or whether they perform similar computations on different inputs, remains unclear. Nevertheless, the role of the vmPFC in psychopathology is widely appreciated - in mood and anxiety disorders, over-activity within constituent regions of the vmPFC is consistently implicated in symptomatology, together with its normalisation following successful treatment. However, the precise locus of change varies between studies. The work presented in this thesis investigates the causal contributions of over-activity within two key subregions of the vmPFC - the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex (sgACC, area 25) and perigenual anterior cingulate cortex (pgACC, area 32) - in discrete dimensions of behaviour and physiology affected in psychiatric disorders. Specifically, the impact of over-activity is assessed on (i) baseline physiological function; (ii) the regulation of anticipatory, motivational and consummatory aspects of reward-related behaviour; and (iii) negative affect including fear learning, stress recovery and the intolerance of uncertainty. To provide further insight into the mechanism of action of antidepressants, the efficacy of selected treatments is tested on changes induced by over-activity of these regions. Beyond the direct relevance of the results presented here to psychiatric disorders and their treatment, the thesis aims to emphasise the importance of broader themes associated with the measurement and quantification of emotion in preclinical animal studies. First, a multi-faceted approach is utilised enabling quantification of both the autonomic and behavioural aspects of emotion. In so doing, the experiments maintain relevance to studies which assess these correlates in isolation, both in humans (which typically measure subjective responses and physiology) and in rodents (which frequently assess behaviour in isolation). The assessment of more than one dimension of emotion confers these studies with improved power to detect maladaptive changes. Second, the experiments described were conducted in the marmoset, a new-world primate. The extensive anatomical homology between marmoset and human prefrontal cortex facilitates the forward-translation of functional results. In combination with the appropriate assays, this renders marmosets as an invaluable species to study the causal contributions of vmPFC subregions to symptoms of psychiatric disorders. I believe that the results of these experiments provide important insights into the causal role primate vmPFC has in relation to the behavioural and physiological aspects of psychiatric symptomatology. Most importantly, I hope that they serve as the foundation for future work to further elucidate the neuropathological processes underlying mental disorders.

Introdução: A esquizofrenia é um dos principais transtornos mentais e promove distúrbios comportamentais e cognitivos. Apesar do grande impacto social, pouco se conhece sobre a patofisiologia e etiologia da esquizofrenia. Pacientes com desordens psicóticas têm aumentado risco de desenvolver epilepsia, e pacientes com epilepsia do lobo temporal tem alta frequência de psicoses. A utilização de modelos experimentais animais de esquizofrenia e epilepsia pode ajudar a entender a neurobiologia dessas doenças e ter papel importante no desenvolvimento de novas estratégias terapêuticas. As interações complexas das crises epilépticas e quadros psicóticos tem sido aos poucos desvendadas. O óxido nítrico (NO) é um importante modulador da neurotransmissão e doadores de NO como o nitroprussiato de sódio (NPS) tem efeitos promissores em pacientes com esquizofrenia. Em modelos animais de epilepsia, NO pode ter efeito pró ou anticonvulsivante, sugerindo que o uso de NPS em pacientes com epilepsia e psicose pode não ser tão simples. Objetivos: Desenvolver um modelo animal de epilepsia e psicose comórbida, e compará-lo do ponto de vista comportamental e neuropatológico com modelos animais puros de epilepsia e esquizofrenia. Além disso, verificar a possível modulação desencadeada pelo tratamento com NPS nos modelos citados. Metodologia: Ratos Wistar machos (260-300g) foram divididos em grupos controle (SAL+SAL), epilepsia puro (PILO+SAL), esquizofrenia (SAL+QUET), epilepsia e psicose comórbida (PILO+QUET) e suas versões tratadas com NPS (SAL+SAL+NPS, PILO+SAL+NPS, SAL+QUET+NPS e PILO+QUET+NPS). Esses animais foram avaliados em diferentes aspectos comportamentais (campo aberto, teste de inibição pré- pulso, memória de reconhecimento de objeto e memória de trabalho), e filmados ao longo de 71 dias para o monitoramento de crises epilépticas espontâneas recorrentes. Também foram avaliadas a perda neuronal e a expressão de nNOS em diferentes regiões cerebrais. Resultados: NPS reduziu a frequência de crises nos animais com epilepsia e psicose comórbida quando comparados a animais não tratados. NPS também teve efeito ansiolítico no modelo animal de epilepsia com e sem psicose, e diminuiu os correlatos comportamentais de sintomas positivos dos animais no modelo de psicose e no de epilepsia + psicose, além de reverter o prejuízo no filtro sensório motor nos animais que receberam pilocarpina e quetamina. No reconhecimento de objeto o modelo de epilepsia e epilepsia+psicose o tratamento com NPS não interferiu no desempenho de memória de curto prazo, porém NPS melhorou a memória de longo prazo no modelo de psicose. NPS preservou regiões como o córtex entorrinal e subiculum nos animais epilépticos, mas a camada granular e córtex pré-límbico revelaram perda significativa nos animais controles. Alta expressão de nNOS em diferentes regiões cerebrais foram visualizadas nos animais com epilepsia, com destaque para aqueles que receberam tratamento com NPS. Conclusão: O tratamento com NPS foi efetivo na amenização de sintomas correlatos comportamentais de psicose no modelo puro de esquizofrenia e no comórbido VIII com epilepsia. Além disso, não exacerbou crises e contribuiu para diminuição delas nos animais do modelo de epilepsia e psicose, que apresentou grandes similaridades com o que é encontrado em casos clínicos. Nossos resultados sugerem que o uso do NPS pode ter resultados na melhoria dos sintomas da psicose interictal humana, assim como já observado para a esquizofrenia. / Introdution: Schizophrenia is a major mental disorder that affects 1% of young adults and has a great impact on quality of life, behavior, and cognition. Despite the high social burden, little is known about the pathophysiology and etiology of schizophrenia. Patients with psychotic disorders have increased risk of developing epilepsy, and patients with temporal lobe epilepsy have a high frequency of psychoses. The use of experimental animal models of epilepsy and schizophrenia may help to better understand the neurobiology of these diseases and play an important role in the development of potential new therapeutic strategies. The complex interactions of seizures and psychotic symptoms are being unveiled. Nitric oxide (NO) is an important modulator of neurotransmission and NO donors such as sodium nitroprusside (SNP) have shown promising effects in schizophrenic patients. In animal models of epilepsy, NO may exert pro- or anticonvulsant effects, suggesting that the use of SNP in patients with epilepsy and psychosis may not be so straightforward. Objectives: To develop an animal model of epilepsy and comorbid psychosis, and compare it from the behavioral and neuropathological point of view with pure animal models of epilepsy and schizophrenia. It was hoped, to verify the possible modulation triggered by the treatment with SNP. Metodology: Males Wistar rats weighing 260-300g were divided in controls group (SAL+SAL), pure epilepsy (PILO+SAL), schizophrenia (SAL+QUET), comorbid psychosis (PILO+KET) and their versions treated with SNP (SAL+SAL+SNP, PILO+SAL+SNP, SAL+KET+SNP and PILO+KET+SNP). These animals were evaluated in a variety of behavioral tests (open field, prepulse inhibition startle reflex, object recognition and working memory), and were filmed over 71 days to monitor spontaneous recurrent seizures. We also evaluated neuronal loss and nNOS expression in different brain regions. Results: SNP reduced seizure frequency in animals with epilepsy and psychosis when compared to those not treated with SNP. SNP also showed anxiolytic effects in the animal model of epilepsy with or without psychosis, decreased behavioral correlates of positive symptoms in the animal model of epilepsy + psychosis, and prevented sensorimotor gating deficits in epilepsy + psychosis IX model, The object recognition test showed that in epilepsy and epilepsy + psychosis models the treatment with SNP did not interfere with short-term memory performance, but SNP improved long-term memory in the psychosis model. SNP preserved brain regions like entorhinal cortex and subiculum in epileptic animals, but the granular layer and prelimbic cortex revealed significant loss in controls animals. High expression of NOS in same brain regions was observed in the animal model of epilepsy, especially in the animals receiving SNP. Conclusion: Treatment with SNP was effective in ameliorating symptoms of behavioral correlates of psychosis in the pure model of schizophrenia and the model comorbid with epilepsy. Moreover, SNP did not exacerbate seizures and reduced seizure frequency in the animal model of epilepsy + psychosis, which showed striking similarities to clinical cases. Our results suggest that the use of SNP could ameliorate symptoms of human interictal psychosis, such as those observed in schizophrenia.

Le traitement de la dépression reste insatisfaisant. Avec un tiers des patients ne répondant à aucun traitement proposé, un délai d’action long, et des effets secondaires non négligeables, la nécessité de développer de nouvelles stratégies thérapeutiques devient urgente. La luminothérapie, traitement de choix de la dépression saisonnière, a été montrée depuis une trentaine d’années comme présentant également un intérêt pour le traitement des dépressions non saisonnières, unipolaires comme bipolaires. Cependant, les mécanismes d’actions sous-tendant l’effet antidépresseur de la lumière restent mal connus. L’objectif de ce travail de thèse est de comprendre, à l’aide d’un modèle original de dépression, les mécanismes neurobiologiques à l’origine de l’effet antidépresseur de la lumière. Nous avons pour cela développé un modèle de dépression combinant stress par la nage forcée et isolation sociale. Nos résultats montrent que ce protocole induit chez les animaux des comportements pseudo-dépressifs stables et résistants à des traitements classiques (escitalopram) mais également à la kétamine, utilisée récemment en étude clinique pour traiter certains patients réfractaires. Si la lumière seule à forte irradiance (Bright light stimulation, BLS, 1000 lux, une heure par jour) n’a pas d’effet antidépresseur, nous avons démontré dans notre modèle de dépression résistante que la BLS permettait de potentialiser la réponse antidépressive d’une combinaison de kétamine et de scopolamine (utilisée récemment comme d’antidépresseur potentiel) à des doses sous-efficaces. Cet effet est modulé par la sérotonine. En effet, la déplétion en tryptophane, précurseur de la sérotonine, bloque l’effet antidépresseur de cette combinaison. De manière intéressante, nous avons découvert que l’effet potentialisateur de la lumière met en jeu les astrocytes de l’habénula latérale. Ces données suggèrent que la lumière associée à la kétamine et la scopolamine, ciblerait les astrocytes afin de rétablir une activité normale dans l’habénula latérale, désinhibant les centres monoaminergiques, menant ainsi à une réponse antidépressive. Ce travail a permis de mieux comprendre les mécanismes à l’origine de la potentialisation de l’effet antidépresseur par la lumière et pourrait aider à optimiser les stratégies thérapeutiques chez les patients déprimés résistants aux traitements incluant la kétamine / The treatment of depression remains unsatisfactory. Given that one third of patients does not respond to any of the proposed treatments, the long delay of action, and the significant side effects, there is an urgent need to develop new and effective therapeutic strategies. Light, a treatment of choice for seasonal depression, has been of particular interest since thirty years in the treatment of non-seasonal unipolar and bipolar depressions. However, the mechanisms underlying the antidepressant effect of light therapy remains poorly understood. The aim of this thesis was to understand, using an original model of depression, the neurobiological mechanisms of the antidepressant effect of light stimulation. We developed an original model of depression combining forced swimming stress and social isolation. Our results showed that the latter protocol induced pseudo-depressive behaviors that were stable and resistant to classical treatments (escitalopram), but also ones recently tested in clinical studies to treat refractory patients (ketamine). Although bright light stimulation (BLS, 1000 lux, one hour per day) failed to present an antidepressant effect, we demonstrated in our model of resistant depression that BLS potentiated the antidepressant response of sub-effective doses of ketamine and scopolamine combination. This effect was modulated by serotonin tone. Indeed, this effect was blocked by tryptophan depletion. Remarkably, we unveiled that the potentiating action of light involves lateral habenula astroglia. These results suggest that light stimulation, associated with ketamine and scopolamine combination, modulated astroglia, in order to restore a normal activity in the lateral habenula and to regulate monoaminergic systems, leading to an effective antidepressant response. This work allowed to better understand the mechanisms responsible of the potentiating action of light and will certainly help in optimizing therapeutic strategies in treatment-resistant depression

Der Einsatz von Ketamin erfolgt in der Humananästhesie, vor allem aufgrund seiner vielfältigen Nebenwirkungen, nur noch nach strenger Indikation. In der Veterinärmedizin ist Ketamin tierartenübergreifend für die Injektionsnarkose weit verbreitet. Um den bekannten Nebenwirkungen vorzubeugen, wird Ketamin mit verschiedenen anderen Anästhetika kombiniert und stellt so ein sicheres Narkoseverfahren bei Tieren dar. Eine besondere Herausforderung ist die Anästhesie bei ophthalmologischen Patienten unter Berücksich-tigung der Kontrolle des Intraokularen Drucks (IOP). In diesem Zusammenhang gibt es in der Literatur widersprüchliche Angaben zur Auswirkung von Ketamin auf den IOP beim Menschen und verschiedenen Tierarten. Auch für die Auswirkungen von Propofol und der endotrachealen Intubation auf den IOP existieren widersprüchliche Aussagen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde untersucht, ob gängige Ketamin-Kombinationsnarkosen bei der augengesunden Katze einen Einfluss auf den IOP haben. Angeregt durch Berichte in der Literatur wurde zudem untersucht, ob die Applikation von Propofol sowie die endotracheale Intubation den IOP bei der Katze beeinflussen. Methodik: Untersucht wurden 48 adulte, augengesunde Katzen, die dem chirurgischen Patientengut der Klinik für Kleintiere der Universität Leipzig entstammten. Es handelt sich um eine prospektive, randomisierte Blindstudie. Die Patienten wurden vier Untersuchungsgruppen zugeordnet. Zur intramuskulären Narkoseeinleitung erhielten Tiere der KX-Gruppe Ketamin (10 mg/kg) und Xylazin (1 mg/kg), der KXAtr-Gruppe Ketamin (10 mg/kg), Xylazin (1 mg/kg) und Atropin (0,025 mg/kg), der KA-Gruppe Ketamin (20 mg/kg) und Acepromazin (0,5 mg/kg) und der KM-Gruppe Ketamin (10 mg/kg) und Medetomidin (50 g/kg). Bei allen Patienten wurde mittels Tono-Pen® XL zu verschiedenen Zeitpunkten der IOP bestimmt: vor Narkoseeinleitung (Ausgangswert), nach Narkoseeinleitung nach 5, Zusammenfassung 86 10, 15 und 20 Minuten und direkt nach der Intubation sowie final nach Beendigung der Narkose während der Aufwachphase. Einige Tiere erhielten zur Vertiefung der Narkose vor der Intubation Propofol. Im Anschluss erfolgte eine ophthalmologische Untersuchung der Patienten, um eine Augenerkrankung auszuschließen. Ergebnisse: Der mittlere Ausgangs-IOP aller Tiere beträgt 15,8 mmHg. Mit p = 0,756 besteht kein signifikanter Unterschied zwischen den Gruppen. Getrennt nach linken (OS) und rechten (OD) Augen ist der mittlere IOP 15,7 und 15,8 mmHg. Dieser Unterschied ist nicht signifikant (p = 0,442). Daher wird für die Auswertung der Mittelwert aller 6 Datenpunkte pro Tier und Messzeitpunkt zugrunde gelegt. Im Vergleich zum Ausgangswert zeigt die KX-Gruppe keine signifikanten IOP-Änderungen. Die KXAtr-Gruppe und die KM-Gruppe weisen zur Final-Messung einen signifikanten IOP-Abfall um 16 % (p = 0,012) bzw. 17 % (p = 0,021) im Vergleich zum Ausgangswert auf. Die KA-Gruppe zeigt zur 15-Minuten-Messung den stärksten IOP-Abfall mit 21 % Prozent (p = 0,001) gegenüber dem Ausgangswert. Ab der 10-Minuten-Messung bis zur post-Intubations-Messung ist der IOP-Abfall der KA-Gruppe signifikant. Für die Gesamtstichprobe hat die Intubation keinen signifikanten Einfluss auf den IOP (p = 0,063). Die Gabe von Propofol zur Vertiefung der Narkose bei einzelnen Tieren hat ebenfalls keinen signifikanten Einfluss auf den IOP (p = 0,42). Schlussfolgerung: Die verwendeten Ketamin-basierten Narkoseprotokolle bewirken bei der augengesunden Katze keinen signifikanten IOP-Anstieg. Die Gruppen KX, KXAtr und KM gewährleisten für den Zeitraum von 20 Minuten nach Narkoseeinleitung einen relativ stabilen IOP. Trotz des signifikanten IOP-Abfalls in der KA-Gruppe sind sämtliche IOP-Schwankungen aller Gruppen klinisch nicht relevant. Die gemessenen IOP-Werte bewegen sich alle im physiologischen Bereich. Zudem geben die Ergebnisse keinen Hinweis auf eine IOP-Steigerung infolge Propofolgabe und Intubation bei der Katze. / Ketamine is used in human medicine based on strict indications, mainly due to its numerous side effects. In veterinary medicine however Ketamine is commonly used to induce anesthesia intramuscularly throughout all species. To minimize the well known side effects Ketamine is used in combination with several other anesthetics and thus represents a safe anesthetic procedure in animals. Ophthalmological patients are a particular challenge for anesthetists with regard to maintaining the intraocular pressure (IOP). Conflicting data can be found in the literature about the effects of Ketamine on IOP in humans and various animal species. The literature also contains various statements about the effects of Propofol and endotracheal intubation on IOP. In this clinical trial we investigated the effects of commonly used Ketamine-based anesthetic protocols on IOP in cats. Motivated by conflicting statements in the literature the analysis of the effects of Propofol and endotracheal intubation on IOP was included in the study. Methods: This is a prospective, randomized, blinded study. 48 adult cats without ophthalmological abnormalities, recruited from the pool of admitted surgical patients of the Department of Small Animal Medicine of the University of Leipzig were included in the study. The patients were assigned to one of the following four groups and anesthesia was induced intramuscularly. Cats in the KX-group were induced with Ketamine (10 mg/kg) and Xylazine (1 mg/kg). Cats in the KXAtr-group were induced with Ketamine (10 mg/kg), Xylazine (1 mg/kg) and Atropine (0,025 mg/kg). Cats in the KA-group were induced with Ketamine (20 mg/kg) and Acepromazine (0,5 mg/kg). Cats in the KM-group were induced with Ketamine (10 mg/kg) and Medetomidine (50 g/kg). In all patients the IOP was measured three times per eye using the Tono-Pen® XL at particular times: baseline IOP before induction of anesthesia, at 5, 10, 15 and 20 minutes after induction of anesthesia, after intubation and final IOP after completion of surgery. Some cats received a single bolus of Propofol to be able to tolerate endotracheal intubation. After the final IOP-measurement all Zusammenfassung 88 cats were subjected to an ophthalmological examination, including slitlamp biomicroscopy and gonioscopy, in order to exclude patients with ophthalmological pathologies. Results: The mean baseline IOP for all animals is 15,8 mmHg (SD 4,0). There is no significant difference between the four groups (p = 0,756). The mean IOP for the right (OD) and left eyes (OS) of all patients was 15,8 mmHg and 15,7 mmHg, respectively. There is no significant difference between right (OD) and left eyes (OS) (p = 0,442). Therefore all further analyses are based on the mean of all six data points per animal and measuring time. The KX-group shows no significant IOP-change relative to baseline-IOP. The KXAtr and KM-group show a significant decrease in IOP of 16 % and 17 %, respectively, at the final measurement compared with baseline-IOP. The KA-group shows a significant decrease in IOP starting at 10 minutes after induction of anesthesia until the post-intubation measurement. The maximum decrease in IOP in this group is 21 % relative to baseline-IOP 15 minutes after induction of anesthesia. For the total data no significant influence of endotracheal intubation on IOP could be detected (p = 0,063). The application of Propofol in a total of 14 cats has no significant effect on IOP (p = 0,42). Conclusion: The Ketamine-based anesthetic protocols used in this study do not cause a significant increase in IOP in cats without ophthalmological abnormalities. The KX, KXAtr and KM-group ensure a relatively stable IOP for the time period of 20 minutes after induction of anesthesia. Despite the significant IOP-decrease in the KA-group none of the IOP-changes in all groups examined are of clinical relevance. All of the collected IOP-values are within the physiological range for cats. There is no evidence for an increase in IOP caused by endotracheal intubation or the application of Propofol.

En la primera parte se evalúan los efectos sedantes, adversos y sobre el sistema cardiorrespiratorio de la romifidina en la especie felina. Se utilizaron cinco y se realizaron 4 grupos experimentales: romifidina 200, 400 y 600 μg/Kg IM y medetomidina 80 μg/Kg IM. En la segunda parte se evalúa la combinación romifidina/ketamina en la especie felina. Se utilizaron siete gatos. Se realizaron 5 grupos experimentales: Romifidina 100 y 200 μg/Kg con ketamina 7,5 y 10 mg/Kg y romifidina 200 μg/Kg con ketamina 5 mg/Kg. Se monitorizó el grado de relajación muscular, la respuesta al clampado y el sistema cardiorrespiratorio durante 60 minutos. Los resultados obtenidos sugieren que el efecto sedante de la romifidina puede ser útil en premedicación anestésica y en intervenciones no dolorosas. La romifidina potencia la actividad de la ketamina, y su combinación compensa parcialmente los efectos adversos de la misma. / Firstly, the sedative, cardio respiratory and adverse effects produced for the administration of romifidine were evaluated in five cats. Four experimental groups were established: romifidine 200, 400 and 600 μg/Kg in comparison to medetomidine 80 μg/Kg. Secondly, the anaesthetic quality, cardiorespiratory and adverse effects produced by the mixture of romifidine and ketamine were studied in seven cats. Five experimental groups were established: Romifidine 100 μg/Kg and ketamine 7.5 mg/Kg and 10 mg/Kg, romifidine 200 μg/Kg and ketamine 5 mg/Kg, 7.5 mg/Kg, and 10 mg/Kg. The drugs were administred intramuscularly. The results of this experience suggest that romifidine could be a good alternative as a sedative for the development of non-painful procedures, as well as anaesthetic pre-medication. Romifidine enhances the anaesthetic effects of ketamine and the disadvantages of each compound are well remedied in the combination. This mixture in combination wit h opioids could be a chance to perform minor surgery procedures.

<p>In this case study research project I have determined that multidrug sedation in children younger than eight years are possible.<br /> Conscious sedation [or sedation where verbal contact with the patient is possible] can be used successfully to decrease anxiety and fear for unpleasant experiences, like dental procedures.</p> <p><br /> Behaviour therapy in conjunction with one or more drugs can be used to depress the central nervous system in order to decrease the patient&rsquo / s awareness of unpleasant stimuli. This enables treatment to be carried out without patient interference. Extensive literature surveys were done to determine the ideal drugs as well as the ideal route for conscious sedation in dental treatment for children. In this study project drugs like midazolam, propofol, alfentanyl and ketamine were titrated intravenously to achieve conscious sedation.</p>

Licentiatavhandling (sammanfattning) Uppsala : Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet. / Härtill 3 uppsatser.