Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death in the United States, and coronary artery disease (CAD) kills over 370,000 people annually. There are available therapies that offer a temporary solution; however, only a heart transplant can fully resolve heart failure, and donor organ shortages severely limit this therapy. C-kit+ human cardiac stem cells (hCSCs) offers a viable alternative therapy to treat cardiovascular disease by replacing damaged cardiac tissue; however, low cell viability, low retention/engraftment, and uncontrollable in vivo differentiation after transplantation has limited the efficacy of stem cell therapy. Tissue engineering solutions offer potential tools to overcome current limitations of stem cell therapy. Materials derived from natural sources such as keratin from human hair offers innate cellular compatibility, bioactivity, and low immunogenicity. Keratin proteins extracted using oxidative chemistry known as keratose (KOS) have shown therapeutic potential in a wide range of applications including cardiac regeneration. My studies utilize KOS hydrogels to modulate c-kit+ hCSC differentiation, and explore the capability of differentiated cells to regenerate vascular tissue. In the first Chapter, we reviewed literature relevant to keratin-based biomaterials and their biomedical applications, the use of stem cells in cardiovascular research, and the differentiation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). The section on biomedical applications of keratin biomaterials focuses on the oxidized form of keratin known as keratose (KOS), because this was the material used for our research. Since we planned to use this material in conjunction with c-kit+ hCSCs, we also briefly explored the use of stem cells in cardiovascular research. Additionally, we examined some key signaling pathways, developmental origins, and the cell phenotype of VSMCs for reasons that will become clear after observing results from chapters 2 and 3. Based upon our review of the literature, KOS biomaterials and c-kit+ hCSCs were determined to be promising as a combined therapeutic for the regeneration of cardiac tissue. Research in Chapter 2 focused on characterizing the effects of KOS hydrogel on c-kit+ hCSC cell viability, proliferation, morphology, and differentiation. Results demonstrated that KOS hydrogels could maintain hCSC viability without any observable toxic effects, but it modulated cell size, proliferation, and differentiation compared to standard tissue culture polystyrene cell culture (TCPS). KOS hydrogel produced gene and protein expression consistent with a VSMC phenotype. Further, we also observed novel "endothelial cell tube-like" microstructures formed by differentiated VSMCs only on KOS hydrogel, suggesting a potential capability of the hCSC-derived VSMCs for in vitro angiogenesis. Results from this study lead us to question what signaling pathways might be responsible for the apparent VSMC differentiation pattern we observed on KOS hydrogels. Research in Chapter 3 explored the time course of VSMC differentiation, cell contractility, inhibition of VSMC differentiation, and measured protein expression of transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1) and its associated peptides for hCSCs cultured on KOS hydrogels, tissue culture polystyrene, and collagen hydrogels. A review of VSMC differentiation signaling pathways informed our decision to investigate the role of TGF-β1 in VSMC differentiation. Results demonstrated that KOS hydrogel differentiated hCSCs significantly increased expression for all three vascular smooth muscle (VSM) markers compared to TCPS differentiated cells. Additionally, KOS differentiated hCSCs were significantly more contractile than cells differentiated on TCPS. Recombinant human (rh) TGF-β1 was able to induce VSM differentiation on TCPS. VSM differentiation was successfully inhibited using TGF-β NABs and A83-01. Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) analysis revealed that both TCPS and KOS hydrogel differentiated cells produced TGF-β1, with higher levels being measured at early time points on TCPS and later time points on KOS hydrogels. Results from supplementing rhTGF-β1 to TCPS and KOS hydrogels revealed that KOS seems to interact with TGF-β to a greater extent than TCPS. Western blot results revealed that latency TGFβ binding protein (LTBP-1) and latency associated peptide (LAP) had elevated levels early during differentiation. Further, the levels of LTBP-1 and LAP were higher on KOS differentiated hCSCs than TCPS hCSCs. This study reaffirms previous results of a VSM phenotype observed on KOS hydrogels, and provides convincing evidence for TGF-β1 inducing VSM differentiation on KOS hydrogels. Additionally, results from ELISA and western blot provide evidence that KOS plays a direct role in this pathway via interactions with TGF-β]1 and its associated proteins LTBP-1 and LAP. Results from chapter 2 and 3 offered significant evidence that our cells exhibited a VSMC phenotype, and that TGF-β1 signaling was a key contributor for the observed phenotype, but we still needed an animal model to explore the therapeutic potential of our putative VSMCs. Research in Chapter 4 investigated a disease model to test the ability of KOS hydrogel differentiated cells to regenerate vascular tissue. To measure vascular regenerative capability, we selected a murine model of critical limb ischemia (CLI). CLI was induced in 3 groups (n=15/group) of adult mixed gender NSG mice by excising the femoral artery and vein, and then treated the mice with either PBS (termed as PBS-treated), Cells differentiated on TCPS (termed as Cells from TCPS), or KOS hydrogel-derived VSMCs (termed as Cells from KOS). Blood perfusion of the hind limbs was measured immediately before and after surgery, then 14, and 28 days after surgery using Laser Doppler analysis. Tissue vascularization, cell engraftment, and skeletal muscle regeneration were measured using immunohistochemistry, 1,1'-Dioctadecyl3,3,3',3'-Tetramethylindocarbocyanine Perchlorate (DiL) vessel painting, and hematoxylin and eosin (HandE) pathohistological staining. During the 4-week period, both cell treatment groups showed significant increases in blood perfusion compared to the PBS-treated control, and at day 28 the Cells from KOS group had significantly better blood flow than the Cells from TCPS group. Additionally, the Cells from KOS group demonstrated a significant increase in the ratio of DiL positive vessels, capillary density, and a greater density of small diameter arterioles compared to the PBS-treated group. Further, both cell-treated groups had similar levels of engraftment into the host tissue. We conclude that Cells from KOS therapy increases blood perfusion in an NSG model of CLI, but does not lead to increased cell engraftment compared to other cell based therapies. Overall, the results from this dissertation demonstrated that KOS hydrogels produce VSMC differentiation from c-kit+ hCSCs mediated by TGF-β1 signaling, and that the differentiated cells are able to increase blood perfusion in a CLI model by increasing capillary density, suggesting enhanced angiogenesis. Future studies should explore potential protein-protein interactions between KOS, TGF-β1 and its associated proteins. Additionally, we should plan animal studies that examine the efficacy of our cells to regenerate cardiac tissue following an acute myocardial infarction (AMI). / PHD

In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden der Entwurf, die Technologie und die Parameteridentifikation von Silizium basierten mikroelektromechanischen Systemen (MEMS) mit piezoelektrischen Dünnschicht-Aluminiumnitrid (AlN) vorgestellt. Auf Basis des AlNs als elektromechanischer Wandler erfolgt die Fertigung eines MEMS Technologiedemonstrators für energiearme Inertialsensoren. Das AlN wird über einen reaktiven Sputterprozess auf einer Wachstumsschicht abgeschieden. Durch Parametervariation des reaktiven Sputterprozesses und der Wachstumsschicht werden die piezoelektrischen Eigenschaften des AlNs optimiert. Die Entwicklung einer Gesamttechnologie führt zu einer Integration des Dünnschicht-AlNs in Silizium-Mikromechaniken. Die Röntgenbeugung (XRD) ermöglicht die Kristallstruktur des AlNs zu qualifizieren. Darüber hinaus werden weitere Analysemethoden vorgestellt, die eine hoch genaue und reproduzierbare messtechnische Bestimmung der piezoelektrischen Koeffizienten aus mikromechanischen Messstrukturen ermöglichen. Die Determination der piezoelektrischen Koeffizienten des Dünnschicht-AlNs aus den Messstrukturen erfolgt mittels analytischen und FE Modellen sowie der Laser-Doppler-Vibrometrie (LDV). Der Fokus der Arbeit liegt hierbei auf der Identifikation der longitudinalen und transversalen piezoelektrischen Ladungskoeffizienten des AlNs. Als Technologiedemonstrator wird ein einachsiger Inertialsensor mit integriertem piezoelektrischen Dünnschicht-AlN vorgestellt. Das MEMS generiert aufgrund des piezoelektrischen Wandlers intrinsisch elektrische Ladungen bei Einwirkung einer mechanischen Energie. Dadurch ist keine elektrische Energiezufuhr für die Messung eines inertialen Ereignisses notwendig. Der vorgestellte Demonstrator wird hinsichtlich seiner Ladungs- und Spannungssensitivität optimiert. Zur theoretischen Beschreibung der Funktionsweise werden analytische, sowie FE und SPICE Modelle genutzt. Eine Charakterisierung des MEMS Bauelements erfolgt hinsichtlich der mechanischen und elektrischen Eigenschaften. / The thesis includes the design, the technology and the parameter identification of silicon-based microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) with piezoelectric thin film of aluminum nitride (AlN). A low-energy inertial sensor as technology demonstrator based on AlN as an electromechanical transducer a MEMS manufacturing process is shown. The AlN is deposited via a reactive sputtering on a growth layer. By varying parameters of the reactive sputtering and the growth layer of AlN, the piezoelectric properties can be optimized. The development of an overall technology results to an integration of the thin film AlNs in silicon micromechanics. X-ray diffraction (XRD) allows to qualify the crystal structure of AlN. Further methods are developed that enable a highly accurate and repeatable metrological determination of piezoelectric coefficients measurement structures. The determination of piezoelectric coefficients of the thin film AlN from the measurement structures is resulting from analytical methods and FE models and the laser Doppler vibrometry (LDV). The identification of the longitudinal and transverse piezoelectric charge coefficient of AlN is one main focus of this work. A uniaxial inertial sensor with an integrated piezoelectric thin film of AlN is presented as technology demonstrator. The piezoelectric transducer of the MEMS is generating electric charges intrinsically as reaction of mechanical stress. Thus, no electric power supply for the measurement of an inertial event is necessary. The presented demonstrator has been optimized with respect to its charge and voltage sensitivity. For a theoretical description analytical and FE and SPICE models are used. A characterization of the MEMS device is carried out with regard to the mechanical and electrical properties.

L’étude présentée dans cette thèse relève de la mécanique des fluides expérimentale et numérique appliquée aux écoulements pariétaux de refroidissement de chambres de combustion aéronautiques. En présence de phénomènes thermo-acoustiques, comme les instabilités de combustion, il est important d’évaluer si les capacités de l’écoulement pariétal à protéger les parois de chambre restent suffisantes. C’est ainsi que nous nous sommes intéressés aux écoulements de paroi multiperforée soumis à une excitation acoustique. Dans ce but, le banc d’essais MAVERIC a été amélioré grâce à l’installation d’un système qui permet de forcer acoustiquement l’écoulement transverse dans lequel les jets pariétaux débouchent. Nous avons pu alors mettre en évidence la forte sensibilité de ce type d’écoulements à l’excitation acoustique. Le bon accord entre les résultats expérimentaux et les simulations numériques aux grandes échelles (LES) effectuées est très encourageant dans le cas d’un forçage par onde stationnaire. Le forçage par onde progressive, étudié uniquement par simulations numériques, s’est révélé être capable de modifier significativement la topologie de l’écoulement. Enfin, à partir de l’outil numérique AVBP-AVTP qui permet le couplage de calculs fluide-solide, nous avons réalisé une étude de l’influence de la présence d’une excitation acoustique sur le comportement thermique de l’écoulement autour d’une paroi multiperforée de chambre de combustion. / This experimental and numerical study in the field of fluid mechanics deals with jets-in cross flow configurations that are relevant for the cooling of aero engine combustion chambers. Indeed, in presence of instabilities it is important to determine to which extent the film cooling is able to do its job of preserving the combustion chamber walls from the thermal load. The test facility MAVERIC has been upgraded in order to acoustically force the crossflow in which the jets are discharging. The strong sensitivity of the overall flow unsteady properties to the presence of the acoustic forcing has been clearly evidenced. The agreement between the experimental results and large-eddy simulations proved to be quite encouraging for a stationary acoustic wave whereas the case of a propagating acoustic wave investigated only numerically reveals also quite a significant change of the flow topology. In this context, the effect of the acoustic forcing on the wall thermal behavior has been analyzed thanks to the use of the fluid-solid coupled AVBP-AVTP solver.

Die Störung der intestinalen Mikrozirkulation gilt als ein kardinaler Mechanismus für die Entwicklung des Multiorganversagens bei Sepsis. Da das Intestinum für mikrozirkulatorische Studien klinisch kaum zugänglich ist, wurden die Auswirkungen einer Therapie mit den antioxidativen Substanzen Oxypurinol und U-74389G (Lazaroid) bzw. den vasoaktiven Substanzen Iloprost (Prostacyclin-Analogon) und Dopexamin auf die intestinale Mikrozirkulation und die systemische Mediatorfreisetzung in einem Tiermodell mit moderater und hoher Endotoxin-Belastung untersucht. Die intravitalmikroskopische Untersuchung der Kapillarperfusion in der Muskularisschicht bei Endotoxinämie erbrachte eine Verbesserung durch Oxypurinol- und Dopexamingabe. Die Perfusion der Mukosa konnte vor allem durch eine Iloprostapplikation gesteigert werden. Die Endotoxin-induzierte, intestinale Leukozytenadhärenz wurde insbesondere durch die Behandlung mit den antioxidativen Substanzen vermindert. Beide therapeutischen Optionen bewirkten eine ca. 60 %ige Reduktion der initialen Tumornekrosefaktor-alpha-Freisetzung in der Versuchsreihe mit der niedrigeren Endotoxin-Dosis. Parallel dazu konnte anhand von Malondialdehyd-Analysen gezeigt werden, dass Oxypurinol und U-74389G wirksam die intestinale, Radikal-induzierte Lipidperoxidation verringerten. Der intestinale mikrovaskuläre Blutfluss konnte durch beide vasoaktiven Substanzen - sowohl bei moderater als auch bei erhöhter Endotoxin-Dosierung - signifikant gesteigert werden. Die Ergebnisse beider Teilstudien bestätigten, dass sowohl reaktive Sauerstoffspezies als auch eine inadäquate Perfusion in der Mikrozirkulation wesentliche pathogenetische Faktoren bei Endotoxinämie bzw. Sepsis darstellen und entsprechende Therapieformen indiziert und effektiv sind. Eine kombinierte Gabe beider Substanzklassen erscheint daher sinnvoll und sollte in weiteren tierexperimentellen und klinischen Studien evaluiert werden. / The disturbance of the intestinal microcirculation is regarded as a pivotal mechanism in the development of multiorgan failure related to sepsis. Since the intestine is clinically not accessible for microcirculatory studies, the effects of a therapy with the antioxidants oxypurinol and U-74389G (lazaroid) as well as the vasoactive substances iloprost (a prostacyclin analogue) and dopexamine on the intestinal microcirculation and the systemic mediator release was studied in an animal model with moderate and high endotoxin challenge. The intravital microscopic examination of the capillary perfusion in the muscularis layer of the intestine during endotoxemia revealed an improvement by administration of oxypurinol and dopexamine. The perfusion of the mucosa could be increased by iloprost administration. The amount of the endotoxin induced, intestinal leukocyte adherence was especially decreased by the treatment with the antioxidants. Both therapeutic options caused a 60 % reduction in the initial tumor necrosis factor-alpha-release in the experiments with the lower endotoxin dose. Malondialdehyde analyses showed that oxypurinol and U-74389G reduced effectively the intestinal, radical-induced lipid peroxidation. The intestinal microvascular blood flow could be significantly increased by both vasoactive substances - as well as with moderately than also with elevated endotoxin-dosage. The results of the study confirmed that both reactive oxygen-species as well as an inadequate perfusion in the microcirculation represent essential pathogenetic factors during endotoxemia as well as sepsis and index corresponding therapy-forms and participates effective. A combined offering both substance-classes appears therefore meaningfully and should be evaluated in further experimental and clinical studies.

Die Höhe des optimalen zerebralen Perfusionsdruckes nach schwerem Schädel-Hirn-Trauma wird kontrovers diskutiert. Während im sogenannten Lund-Konzept ein niedriger Perfusionsdruck angestrebt und die Gabe von Katecholaminen aufgrund potentieller zerebraler vasokonstringierender und weiterer Nebeneffekte vermieden wird, befürwortet das CPP-Konzept nach Rosner eine Anhebung des zerebralen Perfusionsdruckes, wenn notwendig unter intravenöser Gabe von Katecholaminen. Vor diesem Hintergrund galt es, in einem experimentellen Schädel-Hirn-Trauma- Modell der Ratte (Controlled Cortical Impact Injury) den Bereich des optimalen zerebralen Perfusionsdruckes nach traumatischer Hirnkontusion zu ermitteln und den Effekt von Katecholaminen auf den posttraumatischen zerebralen Blutfluss und die Entwicklung des sekundären Hirnschadens zu untersuchen. Die wesentlichen Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit lassen sich wie folgt zusammenfassen: In der Akutphase nach Hirnkontusion liegt der Bereich des zerebralen Perfusionsdruckes, welcher die Entwicklung des Kontusionsvolumens nicht beeinflusst, zwischen 70 und 105 mm Hg. Eine Senkung des Perfusionsdruckes unterhalb bzw. Anhebung oberhalb dieser Schwellenwerte vergrößert das Kontusionsvolumen. Die Anhebung des Blutdruckes mittels intravenöser Infusion von Dopamin oder Noradrenalin führt sowohl in der Frühphase als auch in der Spätphase nach Trauma (4 Stunden bzw. 24 Stunden nach kortikaler Kontusion) zu einem signifikanten Anstieg im kortikalen perikontusionellen Blutfluss und in der Hirngewebe-Oxygenierung. Die durch Anhebung des zerebralen Perfusionsdruckes auf über 70 mm Hg induzierte Verbesserung des posttraumatischen zerebralen Blutflusses bewirkte jedoch keine Reduzierung der Hirnschwellung. Für eine Katecholamin-induzierte zerebrale Vasokonstriktion nach kortikaler Kontusion gibt es keinen Anhalt. Um die Entwicklung des sekundären Hirnschadens nach kortikaler Kontusion zu minimieren, sollte der zerebrale Perfusionsdruck nach traumatischem Hirnschaden nicht unterhalb 70 mm Hg liegen. Eine Anhebung des Perfusionsdruckes auf über 70 mm Hg erscheint nicht notwendig oder vorteilhaft zu sein. Wenn notwendig, kann sowohl in der Früh- als auch Spätphase nach Trauma der zerebrale Perfusionsdruck mittels intravenöser Gabe von Katecholaminen angehoben werden. / The optimum cerebral perfusion pressure after severe traumatic brain injury remains to be controversial. In the Lund concept a relatively low cerebral perfusion pressure is preferred, and administration of catecholamines is avoided due to potential catecholamine-mediated cerebral vasoconstriction and other side effects. In contrast, the CPP concept of Rosner recommends elevation of cerebral perfusion pressure, if needed by intravenous administration of catecholamines. Based on this, in an experimental model of traumatic brain injury of the rat (Controlled Cortical Impact Injury) the optimum range of cerebral perfusion pressure after traumatic brain contusion and the effects of catecholamines on posttraumatic cerebral perfusion and development of secondary brain injury were investigated. The most significant results can be summarized as follows: In the acute phase after brain contusion the range of cerebral perfusion pressure that does not affect the development of posttraumatic contusion volume was found to be between 70 and 105 mm Hg. Reduction of the cerebral perfusion pressure below or elevation above these thresholds increases contusion volume. Elevation of blood pressure by intravenous infusion of dopamine or norepinephrine during the early (4 hours) as well as late (24 hours) phase after trauma results in a significant increase in pericontusional blood flow and brain tissue oxygenation. The increase in cerebral blood flow by elevating cerebral perfusion pressure above 70 mm Hg did not decrease cerebral edema formation. There was no evidence of a catecholamine-induced cerebral vasoconstriction after cortical contusion. In order to minimize secondary brain injury after cortical contusion, cerebral perfusion pressure should not fall bellow 70 mm Hg. However, a further active elevation of cerebral perfusion pressure does not appear necessary or beneficial. If needed cerebral perfusion pressure can be elevated by administration of catecholamines in the early as well late phase after trauma.

Τα ολοκληρωμένα ηλιακά συστήματα συλλέκτη αποθήκης αποτελούνται από μία δεξαμενή αποθήκευσης, της οποίας τμήμα της επιφάνειας της χρησιμοποιείται σαν ηλιακός συλλέκτης. Συνήθως το ρευστό της αποθήκης είναι το νερό χρήσης. Στο υπό εξέταση σύστημα το νερό χρήσης θερμαίνεται έμμεσα, διερχόμενο μέσα από σωληνώσεις εναλλάκτη θερμότητας που τοποθετείται στο εσωτερικό της παραλληλεπίπεδης δεξαμενής. Για την εντατικοποίηση της μετάδοσης θερμότητας προς το νερό χρήσης, δημιουργείται ανάδευση του ρευστού του δοχείου μέσω κυκλοφορητή, ο οποίος τίθεται σε λειτουργία μόνο όταν υπάρχει ζήτηση ζεστού νερού. Προς αποφυγή παραμορφώσεων τοποθετούνται πτερύγια συγκράτησης που ενώνουν τις δύο μεγάλες επιφάνειες της δεξαμενής. Στην παρούσα διδακτορική διατριβή διερευνήθηκαν τα ροϊκά φαινόμενα στο εσωτερικό του ICS που έχει περιγραφεί προηγουμένως, με στόχο τη μεγιστοποίηση της θερμανταλλαγής μεταξύ των δύο κυκλωμάτων νερού. Για την παρατήρηση του ροϊκού πεδίου καθώς και την λήψη μετρήσεων ταχυτήτων κατασκευάστηκε πειραματική συσκευή με διαφανή τοιχώματα από Plexiglas. Ελήφθησαν μετρήσεις ταχυτήτων και διακυμάνσεων με χρήση συστήματος Laser Doppler διπλής ακτίνας. Για την οπτικοποίηση του ροϊκού πεδίου τοποθετήθηκαν σωματίδια πολυστερίνης στο εσωτερικό της συσκευής. Ελήφθησαν ψηφιακές φωτογραφίες και βιντεοσκοπήσεις του ροϊκού πεδίου. Για την υπολογιστική προσομοίωση χρησιμοποιήθηκε το εμπορικό λογισμικό FLUENT. Αναπτύχθηκε υπολογιστικό μοντέλο και επιλύθηκε με όλα τα διαθέσιμα μοντέλα τύρβης. Στη συνέχεια πραγματοποιήθηκε σειρά υπολογιστικών προσομοιώσεων, στις οποίες διερευνήθηκε η βέλτιστη θέση και το μέγεθος των στομίων ανακυκλοφορίας, η βέλτιστη διάταξη των πτερυγίων συγκράτησης και η βέλτιστη θέση του εναλλάκτη. Επιπλέον προσδιορίστηκε υπολογιστικά και πειραματικά ο χρόνος αποκατάστασης του ροϊκού πεδίου. Τέλος, τα αποτελέσματα συγκρίθηκαν και με πειραματικά αποτελέσματα άλλων εργασιών. Τα συμπεράσματα που εξάγονται έχουν ως ακολούθως: Το μοντέλο τύρβης standard k-ω δίνει τα πιο αξιόπιστα αποτελέσματα. Το υπολογιστικό μοντέλο θεωρείται πιστοποιημένο μετά από πειραματική επιβεβαίωση ταχυτήτων και θερμοκρασιών. Το στόμιο ανακυκλοφορίας δεν πρέπει να τοποθετείται κάθετα στις μεγάλες επιφάνειες της δεξαμενής, ενώ η διάμετρος του πρέπει να είναι 1/2" ή και μικρότερη. Ο χρόνος αποκατάστασης του ροϊκού πεδίου είναι περίπου 35 s. Τα πτερύγια συγκράτησης πρέπει να ακολουθούν τις ροικές γραμμές. Ως βέλτιστη θέση του εναλλάκτη θεωρείται όταν τοποθετείται σε επαφή με το τοίχωμα. / Integrated Collector Storage (ICS) solar systems use part of the hot water storage as collector, i.e. half of the storage surface is used as absorber. Usually, the storage medium serves also as the energy transfer medium (service hot water). In the examined ICS, the service water is heated indirectly, passing through a serpentine heat exchanger placed inside the tank. The heat transfer from the stored water to the service water is intensified by the agitation of the stored water. A simple solution is the recirculation of the stored water by a small pump, which is functioning whenever a request for hot water exists. Fins in suitable positions, connect the front and back surface of the ICS, to withstand the deformation due to pressures by the tank water. In the present PhD thesis, the flow phenomena inside the ICS previous mentioned, are investigated. The aim is the maximization of the heat transfer between the two water circuits. An experimental device was constructed by transparent Plexiglas, for flow visualization and velocity measurements. A dual beam Laser Doppler Velocimetry (LDV) system was used to measure velocities. Polystyrene particles were added in the comprised water, for the visualization of the path lines. Photographs and video films were also taken. The commercial code FLUENT is used for the Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations. A CFD model is developed and solutions are obtained using all the available turbulence models. Three main factors that influence the performance are optimized: the position and size of the recirculation ports, the arrangement and size of the interconnecting fins and the heat exchanger placement. The settling time, i.e., the time required for the flow field to be fully developed, is computed both numerically and experimentally. The previous analysis leads to the following conclusions: The standard k–ω model is selected as the most appropriate. The model is validated, with good agreement, against experimental measurements of velocities and temperatures. The placement of the inlet recirculation port perpendicular to the main surfaces of the ICS should be avoided, while its diameter should be 1/2" or less. The settling time is computed about 35s. The interconnecting fins, of the two main ICS surfaces should follow the flow filed path lines. The optimal placement of the tube heat exchanger is in contact with the two major surfaces of the storage tank.

Les dispositifs d’isolation galvanique intégrés au sein des systèmes de commande d’interrupteurs de puissance doivent répondre à une demande accrue en performance, facilité d’intégration et efficacité énergétique. Les transducteurs ultrasonores capacitifs micro-usinés (cMUT : capacitive Micromachined Ultrasonic Transducer), capables d’émettre et de recevoir des ondes ultrasonores, semblent une alternative tout à fait nouvelle à la fonction d’isolation galvanique. Ces travaux de thèse ont pour objectif de démontrer la faisabilité d’un dispositif basé sur la technologie cMUT. Le principe de fonctionnement consiste à transmettre une information grâce à une communication par onde acoustique de volume entre deux réseaux de cMUT placés de part et d’autre d’un substrat. Nous focalisons, en premier lieu, ces travaux sur le processus de fabrication par micro-usinage de surface des cMUT ainsi que les techniques de réalisation des dispositifs en structure double face sur substrat de silicium. L’étude permet d’identifier le collage de substrat comme une solution de fabrication industrialisable. Suite à la réalisation des dispositifs, la caractérisation électro-mécanique des cMUT est une étapeessentielle à la validation de leur fonctionnalité en tant que dispositifs émetteurs. L’étude débute par uneévaluation des propriétés mécaniques du matériau constituant la membrane et qui impactent directementle comportement global des cMUT. Puis, la caractérisation du comportement statique et dynamique descMUT permet d’extraire les paramètres tels que la fréquence de résonance, la tension de collapse etl’efficacité électro-mécanique qui définissent le mode de pilotage d’un tel système.Finalement, la validation du concept de transmission et de détection d’ondes ultrasonores est réaliséegrâce à des mesures de vibrométrie laser Doppler. Les résultats apportent des éléments de réponse quantau mode de propagation des ondes et permettent d’identifier les topologies de meilleure efficacité entransmission acoustique. Enfin, l’intégration du prototype dans l’application de commanded’interrupteur de puissance démontre la faisabilité du concept de transformateur acoustique basé sur latechnologie cMUT. / Galvanic isolation devices integrated into switch command systems must be able to answer all of the increasing demand for performance, energetic efficiency and integration easiness. The capacitive micro machined ultrasonic transducers (cMUT), able to emit and receive ultrasounds, could be an entirely new alternative to the function of galvanic isolation. This work aims to demonstrate the feasibility of a cMUT-based device. The operating principle consists in transmitting information thanks to a bulk acoustic wave between two cMUT arrays located on both sides of a substrate. We first focus on cMUT surface micromachining fabrication process and techniques of double-side device manufacturing. Our study allows us to identify wafer bonding as a realistic industrial solution. After device fabrication, electro-mechanical of cMUT is an essential step to validate their functionality as ultrasonic emitters. The study starts with the mechanical properties evaluation of the membrane material. These properties directly impact the global behavior of cMUT. Then, the characterization of cMUT static and dynamic behavior allows extracting parameters as resonance frequency, collapsing voltage and electro-mechanical efficiency which define the actuation mode of such a system. Finally, the validation of transmission and reception of ultrasonic waves is evaluated by vibrometer laser Doppler measurements. Results bring elements concerning the waves propagation modes and allow identifying the best acoustical efficiency in regard to the topology. In conclusion, the prototype integration in the application of power switch command demonstrates the feasibility of acoustic transformer concept based on cMUT technology.

Afin d’alléger les moteurs d’avions et diminuer la consommation de carburant, les industriels tendent à rendre plus compact le système de compression de leurs moteurs, qui représente environ 40% de la masse totale. Or, à taux de compression global égal, la réduction du nombre d’étages implique une charge aérodynamique plus élevée par étage. Cela augmente d’autant les risques de décollements sur les aubes et la dégradation des performances. L’aspiration de la couche limite sur les aubages s’est révélée très prometteuse pour supprimer ces décollements néfastes et satisfaire aux besoins de charge aérodynamique élevée. Cependant, l’aspiration modifie fortement la distribution de pression statique à la paroi des aubes, rendant les approches de conception traditionnelles inadaptées. L’objectif de ce travail de thèse est donc de proposer une nouvelle méthode et de nouveaux critères de conception d’aubages fortement chargés, intégrant l’aspiration de la couche limite. Cette méthode repose sur une stratégie d’aspiration en deux étapes. Dans un premier temps, un contrôle passif, par courbure et diffusion, de la position du point de décollement est effectué dans le but de la rendre insensible aux conditions de fonctionnement. Dans un second temps, un contrôle actif par aspiration vise à placer la fente d’aspiration par rapport au point de décollement de manière à minimiser le taux d’aspiration nécessaire au recollement de la couche limite. Afin de mettre en pratique cette stratégie, une technique de dessin d’aubages par prescription de la distribution de courbure de l’extrados et de la variation de section du canal inter-aubes, est ainsi développée. Associée à un outil de pré-dimensionnement rapide ainsi qu’une évaluation des pertes de pression totale incluant la présence d’aspiration, cette méthode permet ainsi de concevoir une grille de stator aspirée subsonique réalisant une déflexion fluide de 60 degrés, pour un nombre de Mach amont de 0,5, correspondant à un facteur de diffusion de 0,73. Cette performance au point nominal est obtenue avec un coefficient de pertes de pression totale de 2,5%, en aspirant 1,1% du débit entrant dans la grille. Ces valeurs peuvent néanmoins être réduites respectivement à 2,1% et 0,8% par l’emploi d’une fente d’aspiration à bords arrondis. Cette étude numérique bidimensionnelle est effectuée à l’aide du code de calcul elsA de l’ONERA. Afin de valider expérimentalement cette méthode de conception ainsi que les outils numériques associés, une grille d’aubes plane est construite et testée à basse vitesse au laboratoire de Mécanique de Fluides et d’Acoustique de l’Ecole Centrale de Lyon. A mi-envergure, les résultats issus de l’expérience et de simulations numériques 3D confirment la pertinence de la stratégie d’aspiration et la démarche de conception adoptée. Cette confrontation met alors en évidence l’impact de la distribution du taux d’aspiration suivant l’envergure sur l’efficacité de l’aspiration. Etant donné l’importance des écoulements tridimensionnels rencontrés, une généralisation en trois dimensions de la stratégie d’aspiration est proposée et est appliquée numériquement sur cette même grille d’aubes. En contrôlant simultanément les couches limites se développant sur l’aube et sur les parois latérales du canal de compression, il est alors possible de supprimer presque totalement les décollements de coins présents dans celui-ci. En contrepartie, le taux d’aspiration voit sa valeur augmenter très fortement, tempérant ce bénéfice. L’épaisseur des couches limites entrantes se révèle alors également être un facteur déterminant pour le succès du contrôle des couches limites par aspiration, dans un cadre tridimensionnel. / In order to reduce the mass of aircraft jet engines as well as their fuel consumption, manufacturers tend to make the compression system of their engines more compact, since this component represents approximately 40% of the total mass. However, for a given overall pressure ratio, decreasing the number of stages implies increasing the aerodynamic load per stage. This all the more increases the risk of flow separation on the blades ultimately resulting in a decrease in performance. Boundary layer suction on the blade has proven to be very promising to suppress this deleterious flow separation and meet the needs of high aerodynamic loads. Nevertheless, boundary layer suction significantly modifies the static pressure distribution on the blades, making traditional design approaches unsuitable. Therefore, the objective of this Ph.D. work is to develop a new method and new criteria for the design of highly loaded compressor blades, integrating boundary layer suction into the design process. This design method relies on a two-step aspiration strategy. First, passive control of the separation point location is applied via curvature and diffusion in order to make it insensitive to operating conditions. Second, active control through boundary layer suction aims at placing the suction slot with respect to the separation point location, in order to minimize the necessary suction mass flow rate required to reattach the flow. To put this strategy into practice, a blading technique that consists of prescribing the curvature distribution on the suction side of the blade and the cross-section distribution of the blade passage is developed. In association with a fast pre-design tool, as well as an overall total pressure loss coefficient including aspiration, this method allows the design of a subsonic aspirated stator cascade with flow turning of 60 degrees, for an inlet Mach number of 0.5,giving a Diffusion Factor of 0.73. This performance at the design point is obtained for an overall total pressure loss coefficient of 2.5%, aspirating 1.1% of the inlet mass flow rate. Nevertheless, these two values can be respectively reduced to 2.1% and 0.8% by rounding the edges of the suction slot. This bi-dimensional numerical study has been carried out with the elsA solver from ONERA. To experimentally validate this design method and the associated numerical tools, a planar cascade is built and tested at low speed at the Laboratoire de Mécanique de Fluides et d’Acoustique at the Ecole Centrale de Lyon. At mid-span, results from the experiment and from tri-dimensional numerical simulations confirm the relevance of the design approach. This comparison then discloses the impact of the suction mass flow rate distribution along the span, on the efficiency of aspiration. Given the importance of tri-dimensional flows encountered in the experiment and simulations, a generalization in three dimensions of the aspiration strategy is proposed and numerically applied on the same cascade. By simultaneously controlling the boundary layers developing on the blades and on the endwalls,it is possible to almost entirely suppress the corner separations present in the blade passage. However, one disadvantage is that the suction mass flow rate undergoes a strong increase, moderating this benefit. The thickness of the inlet boundary layers appears to be also a key factor in the success of boundary layer control by aspiration, in a tri-dimensional context.

Les recherches sur les instationnarités des Interactions Ondes de Choc Couches Limites (IOCCL) turbulentes ont permis une description détaillée de celles-ci tant expérimentalement que numériquement . Ceci a conduit à plusieurs schémas susceptibles d'expliquer les respirations à basses fréquences observées dans de tels écoulements. Les configurations avec des conditions amont laminaires ou transitionnelles ont été moins étudiées.Dans le cadre du programme Européen TFAST, un important effort a été mené afin de développer des dispositifs expérimentaux, conjointement à des simulations numériques, permettant une étude détaillée de ces configurations. Dans le cadre de cette thèse, on a mis en place une configuration de réflexion d'onde de choc sur une couche limite laminaire pour un nombre de Mach de 1.68. L'utilisation des métrologies classiques (Anémométrie Laser Doppler, Anémométrie Fil Chaud), adaptées à ces conditions expérimentales particulières, a permis de décrire les propriétés spatio-temporelles de ces écoulements. Le champ moyen a été caractérisé et comparé aux théories classique et aux résultats obtenus dans différentes souffleries.Un schéma décrivant le mécanisme de transition à la turbulence au sein de l'interaction a été développé. Sa sensibilité aux conditions amont a été étudiée en plaçant des perturbations en amont de l'interaction. Dans tous les cas, des instationnarités convectives (haute fréquence) et stationnaires (basse fréquence) ont été observées et comparées à celles existantes pour les configurations amont turbulentes. Une gamme intermédiaire d'instationnarités convectives (moyenne fréquence) a été mise en évidence et caractérisée. / Research dedicated to the study of the unsteadiness of turbulent Shock Wave Boundary Layer Interaction (SWBLI) has allowed a detailed description of this kind of interaction both experimentally and numerically. Several scenario were proposed to explain the low frequency unsteadiness observed in separated SWBLI. Nevertheless, the literature on this kind of flow involving either upstream laminar or transitional conditions is quite reduce. Within the framework of the European TFAST program, an important effort was made to develop experimental devices, in conjunction with numerical simulations, allowing a detailed study of these laminar or transitional configurations. In particular, within the framework of this thesis, a shock wave reflection configuration on a laminar boundary layer was set-up, with a nominal free stream Mach number of 1.68. Using classical metrology (Laser Doppler Anemometry, Hot WireAnemometry) that have been adapted to these particular experimental conditions, we have been able to describe the spatio-temporal properties of the interaction. The mean field has been characterized and compared with the classical theories and the results obtained in other configurations.A model describing the transition mechanisms to turbulence within the interaction has been developed. Its sensitivity to upstream conditions was studied by placing perturbations upstream of the interaction. In all cases, convective (high frequency) and stationary (low frequency) unsteadiness were observed and compared with those existing for upstream turbulent configurations. An intermediate range of convective unsteadiness (medium frequency) has been demonstrated and characterized.

In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden der Entwurf, die Technologie und die Parameteridentifikation von Silizium basierten mikroelektromechanischen Systemen (MEMS) mit piezoelektrischen Dünnschicht-Aluminiumnitrid (AlN) vorgestellt. Auf Basis des AlNs als elektromechanischer Wandler erfolgt die Fertigung eines MEMS Technologiedemonstrators für energiearme Inertialsensoren. Das AlN wird über einen reaktiven Sputterprozess auf einer Wachstumsschicht abgeschieden. Durch Parametervariation des reaktiven Sputterprozesses und der Wachstumsschicht werden die piezoelektrischen Eigenschaften des AlNs optimiert. Die Entwicklung einer Gesamttechnologie führt zu einer Integration des Dünnschicht-AlNs in Silizium-Mikromechaniken. Die Röntgenbeugung (XRD) ermöglicht die Kristallstruktur des AlNs zu qualifizieren. Darüber hinaus werden weitere Analysemethoden vorgestellt, die eine hoch genaue und reproduzierbare messtechnische Bestimmung der piezoelektrischen Koeffizienten aus mikromechanischen Messstrukturen ermöglichen. Die Determination der piezoelektrischen Koeffizienten des Dünnschicht-AlNs aus den Messstrukturen erfolgt mittels analytischen und FE Modellen sowie der Laser-Doppler-Vibrometrie (LDV). Der Fokus der Arbeit liegt hierbei auf der Identifikation der longitudinalen und transversalen piezoelektrischen Ladungskoeffizienten des AlNs. Als Technologiedemonstrator wird ein einachsiger Inertialsensor mit integriertem piezoelektrischen Dünnschicht-AlN vorgestellt. Das MEMS generiert aufgrund des piezoelektrischen Wandlers intrinsisch elektrische Ladungen bei Einwirkung einer mechanischen Energie. Dadurch ist keine elektrische Energiezufuhr für die Messung eines inertialen Ereignisses notwendig. Der vorgestellte Demonstrator wird hinsichtlich seiner Ladungs- und Spannungssensitivität optimiert. Zur theoretischen Beschreibung der Funktionsweise werden analytische, sowie FE und SPICE Modelle genutzt. Eine Charakterisierung des MEMS Bauelements erfolgt hinsichtlich der mechanischen und elektrischen Eigenschaften. / The thesis includes the design, the technology and the parameter identification of silicon-based microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) with piezoelectric thin film of aluminum nitride (AlN). A low-energy inertial sensor as technology demonstrator based on AlN as an electromechanical transducer a MEMS manufacturing process is shown. The AlN is deposited via a reactive sputtering on a growth layer. By varying parameters of the reactive sputtering and the growth layer of AlN, the piezoelectric properties can be optimized. The development of an overall technology results to an integration of the thin film AlNs in silicon micromechanics. X-ray diffraction (XRD) allows to qualify the crystal structure of AlN. Further methods are developed that enable a highly accurate and repeatable metrological determination of piezoelectric coefficients measurement structures. The determination of piezoelectric coefficients of the thin film AlN from the measurement structures is resulting from analytical methods and FE models and the laser Doppler vibrometry (LDV). The identification of the longitudinal and transverse piezoelectric charge coefficient of AlN is one main focus of this work. A uniaxial inertial sensor with an integrated piezoelectric thin film of AlN is presented as technology demonstrator. The piezoelectric transducer of the MEMS is generating electric charges intrinsically as reaction of mechanical stress. Thus, no electric power supply for the measurement of an inertial event is necessary. The presented demonstrator has been optimized with respect to its charge and voltage sensitivity. For a theoretical description analytical and FE and SPICE models are used. A characterization of the MEMS device is carried out with regard to the mechanical and electrical properties.