A growing number of companies realise that to achieve their environmental goals and satisfy stakeholder expectations, they need to look beyond their own facilities and to involve their suppliers in environmental initiatives. A life cycle approach means that the production system should be optimised as whole, across national boarders and individual organisations taking part all the way from extraction to disposal. This study is a Life Cycle Inventory of resources used when producing a piece of cotton garment and the method is based on the standardisation series of ISO 14040-43. The area of study, Tamil Nadu the most southern state of India, accounts for more than 90% of India’s knitwear exports to Western Europe. The main conclusion is that the Life Cycle Inventory could bean appropriate method to be used within the textile industry but the main advantage may not be in solving problems but instead framing them in a distinctive way and making people aware of them. An approach that combines life cycle and sustainability concepts could be a way towards enhanced corporate responsibility.

This thesis proposes control schemes and converter configurations for high power wound field synchronous motor (WFSM) drives. The model for a salient pole WFSM in any general rotating reference frame is developed which can be used to derive models along known rotor (dq) and stator flux (MT) reference frames. Based on these models, the principle of sensor-less stator flux oriented field-oriented control (FOC) for salient pole WFSM is developed. So far in the literature, control of cylindrical rotor machine only has been addressed and the effects of saliency have generally been neglected. The performance of the proposed sensor-less FOC has been demonstrated by experimentally operating a 15.8 HP salient pole WFSM using a three-level IGBT based voltage source inverter (VSI). The principle of FOC has been later extended to the control of current source load commutated inverter (LCI) fed salient pole WFSM drives, where the drawbacks present in conventional self-control method such as rigorous off-line calculation for generation of look up tables, coupling between flux and torque control etc. are eliminated. This thesis also proposes the combination of a VSI with the LCI power circuit to overcome the different disadvantages that are present in the existing LCI topology. Firstly, a novel starting scheme is proposed, where the LCI fed WFSM is started with the aid of a low power auxiliary VSI converter in a smooth manner with sinusoidal motor currents and voltages. This overcomes the difficulties of the present complex dc link current pulsing technique that has drawbacks such as pulsating torque, long starting time etc. In a second mode of operation, it is shown that the VSI can be connected to the existing LCI fed WFSM drive as a harmonic compensator in On-The-Fly mode; this will make the terminal stator current and voltage sinusoidal apart from cancellation of torque pulsations thus improving the drive performance. The above two schemes have potential as retrofit for existing drives. It is possible to combine both the advantages, mentioned above, by permanently connecting the VSI with the LCI power circuit to feed the WFSM. This proposed hybrid LCI/VSI drive can be regarded as a universal solution for high power synchronous motor drives at all power and speed ranges.

Eutrophication is one of the most serious environmental problems in the Baltic Sea due to factors such as nutrient discharges from different sources and long residence time. Eutrophication gives rise to increased primary production, often followed by oxygen depletion and disruption of important ecosystems. An action plan has been created by the Helsinki Commission (HELCOM) in order to achieve good ecological status of the Baltic Sea in the year of 2021. According to the action plan, 21 000 tonnes of nitrogen and 290 tonnes of phosphorus shall be decreased of the annual discharge from Sweden. The aim of methods within ecological engineering is to solve environmental problems, and the applications ranging from the harvesting of existing ecosystems to the construction of new ecosystems. This study evaluates if harvest of algae, reed, and mussels can help meeting the goals of the action plan considerably, in accordance with areas and biomass amounts that need to be harvested, and to assess the efficiency of the three biomasses with regards to nutrient reduction. The potential of harvested biomasses as substrates in biogas production and as fertilizers is investigated, and how much fossil CO2 that can be saved from being released to the atmosphere if net energy benefits, calculated from energy budgets in the biogas process, replaces fossil fuels. Life cycle inventories which extend from the harvest (i.e. from the Baltic coast of Sweden) to the production of biogas have been made in order to investigate the biogas potential of algal, reed, and mussel biomass. Suitability of the three biomasses as fertilizers has been assessed through comparison between nutrient sufficiency of crops and nutrient contents of the three biomasses (i.e. based on quotients of nitrogen). The quantity of biomass in the areas that can be harvested can help meeting the goals of the action plan drawn up by HELCOM, and mussels show to be most efficient with regards to nutrient reduction efficiency. Reed has the highest net energy benefit followed by algae, and both biomasses show potential of further investigation as substrates in the biogas production process. Mussels have low net energy benefit and thus are not a suitable substrate in biogas production. The three biomasses are suitable as fertilizers with respect to contents of nitrogen but the content of phosphorus occurs under the sufficiency levels for the crops (i.e. peas, grain, and sugar beets). For algae and reed, the potassium contents occur above the sufficiency level for peas and grain but under the level for sugar beets, mussels contain lower levels of potassium than the need of the investigated crops. / Eutrofiering är ett av de största miljöhoten i Östersjön och orsakas av faktorer som utsläpp av näringsämnen från olika källor samt lång uppehållstid. Eutrofiering ger upphov till ökad primärproduktion där syrebrist och störning av viktiga ekosystem är vanliga påföljder. En aktionsplan har utformats av HELCOM som fastställer att Sverige ska reducera 21 000 ton kväve och 290 ton fosfor av de årliga utsläppen till Östersjön, med syftet att uppnå god ekologisk status år 2021. Metoder inom ecological engineering innefattar sund skörd av existerande ekosystem med syftet att lösa miljöproblem. I den här studien undersöks om skörd av alger, vass och musslor kan hjälpa till att möta miljömålen med påtaglig effekt, samt mängder och ytor som måste skördas av de tre biomassorna. Effektiviteten med avseende på näringsreducering hos de tre biomassorna jämförs. Potentialen för användning av de skördade biomassorna som substrat i biogasproduktion samt som gödningsmedel undersöks, samt hur mycket CO2 som kan besparas att släppas ut till atmosfären om nettoenergi från energibudgetar i biogasprocessen ersätter fossila bränslen. Energibudgetar som sträcker sig från skörd till biogasproduktion har utformats samt näringsinnehåll av de tre biomassorna jämfördes med näringsbehov hos vissa grödor för att ta reda på biomassornas eventuella potential som gödningsmedel. Beträffande biomassor och areor som finns att skörda visade det sig att metoderna kan möta miljömålen utformade av HELCOM. Musslor visade sig vara den mest effektiva biomassan att skörda med avseende på näringsämnesreducering. Vass erhöll högst nettoenergiutbyte (i.e. baserat på energibudgetarna) följt av alger, därmed finns potential för vidare undersökning av de båda biomassorna som substrat i biogasprocesser. Nettoenergiutbytet i biogasprocessen hos musslor var lågt vilket visar att musslorna inte är lämpligt som substrat. De tre biomassorna uppvisar lämplighet som gödningsmedel med avseende på kväveinnehåll men innehållet av fosfor ligger under näringsbehovet hos de grödor som undersöktes. Alger och vass uppfyller kaliumbehovet hos ärter och spannmål, men inte hos sockerbetor. Musslornas kaliuminnehåll är lägre än näringsbehovet hos samtliga grödor.

This research analyzed environmental and economic factors associated with municipal solid waste (MSW) management of select high growth Planning District Commissions (PDCs) of Virginia. Current MSW management scenarios were compared to future hypothetical scenarios utilizing a regional landfill or waste-to-energy (WTE) combustion facility. Life-cycle inventory and full cost accounting methods of the Municipal Solid Waste Decision Support Tool, developed by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), were utilized to estimate annualized environmental emissions and economic costs. Model results and analysis indicate that a regional landfill would be the least cost intensive MSW management strategy in comparison to current management methods; however present the greatest environmental burden with respect to methane emissions. It was also inferred that a WTE facility would represent the least environmental burden with respect to energy offsets via MSW combustion while being the most cost intensive option. The study supports the anecdotal view that a regional-based approach to MSW management of high-growth PDCs would help reduce costs and potential environmental impacts.

Aluminium die casting is a process used to transform molten aluminium material into automotive gearbox housings, wheels and electronic components, among many other uses. It is used because it is a very efficient method of achieving near net shape with the required mechanical properties. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a technique used to determine the environmental impacts of a product or process. The Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) is the initial phase of an LCA and describes which emissions will occur and which raw materials are used during the life of a product or during a process. This study has improved the LCI technique by adding in manufacturing and other costs to the ISO standardised methods. Although this is not new, the novel application and allocation methods have been developed independently. The improved technique has then been applied to Aluminium High Pressure Die Casting. In applying the improved LCI to this process, the cost in monetary terms and environmental emissions have been determined for a particular component manufactured by this process. A model has been developed in association with an industry partner so this technique can be repeatedly applied and used in the prediction of costs and emissions. This has been tested with two different products. Following this, specialised LCA software modelling of the aluminium high pressure die casting process was conducted. The variations in the process have shown that each particular component will have different costs and emissions and it is not possible to generalise the process by modelling only one component. This study has concentrated on one process within die casting but the techniques developed can be used across any variations in the die casting process.

<p>Our common future involves many important challenges. People and nature need to improve the relationship in order to reach an ecologically sustainable development. In a society where consumption of products steadily increases, the consumer awareness about social and environmental issues connected to the products becomes an importent factor. More and more companies choose to work more actively with these issues and more and more products get labelled by some of the eco labelling organisations. From the cradle to the gate means that a study has been done on a part of a products life cycle. In this master thesis a pair of cotton trousers has been followed from the cotton field and through the manufacturing chain in order to sees how much resource that are connected to the cultivation and to the production. Methological approach has been Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) according to ISO 14040. The empirical material is collected in South India, in an area known for its intense cotton manufacturing. </p><p>Studies like this can be a good way of showing the environmental impacts of a certain product. LCI can for example work as a criterion for eco labelling, but the methodology could also support the overall environmental work in companies.</p>

La lutte contre le changement climatique implique de modifier les modes de production et de consommation actuels pour réduire de façon drastique les émissions de gaz à effet de serre dont la grande majorité est liée à la combustion d’énergies fossiles. Face à ces enjeux, de nombreux pays se sont engagés dans une transition énergétique pour faire évoluer leur système énergétique, notamment électrique de façon à répondre en partie aux exigences d’une économie bas carbone. Pour guider les acteurs dans leurs choix stratégiques, des outils d’aide à la décision s’avèrent efficaces pour identifier les leviers potentiels de réduction des impacts environnementaux, notamment par la méthode d’Analyse du Cycle de Vie (ACV) qui évalue les impacts d’un produit sur tout son cycle de vie. L’un de ses développements, l’ACV conséquentielle, vise à analyser les impacts d’un changement, et prend donc en compte ses effets directs et indirects sur l’environnement. Cette méthode reste encore peu utilisée par les praticiens en raison du manque d’inventaires génériques pour ACV conséquentielle. Ce constat est d’autant plus marquant pour l’électricité, largement utilisée dans la technosphère, dont la production évolue significativement pour s’engager dans la transition énergétique. Les travaux présentés ici visent à proposer une méthode d’élaboration d’inventaires électricité génériques pour ACV conséquentielle, qui intègrent les spécificités techniques du produit électricité, à travers le bouquet énergétique ou mix qui combine les différents moyens de production, variables selon le pays considéré. Afin de parvenir à simplifier les mix de production d’électricité, une typologie est établie à partir de l’étude des émissions de Gaz à Effet de Serre (GES), des mix et de leur décomposition en moyens de production. Elle identifie 4 groupes de pays, classés par émissions GES croissantes, i.e., 0-37 gCO2eq/kWh, 37-300 gCO2eq/kWh, 300-600 gCO2eq/kWh et >600gCO2eq/kWh, et qui possèdent des caractéristiques de composition spécifiques. Afin de se positionner dans une perspective conséquentielle, l’évolution de douze mix électriques de 1960 à 2010 est analysée. L’analyse historique des phénomènes de transition, c’est-à-dire le passage d’un groupe à un autre de la typologie, est ensuite proposée. Un modèle basé sur une optimisation mono-objectif impliquant, dans un premier temps, un critère de minimisation des émissions GES, et puis dans un second temps, un critère de maximisation de la production d’origine renouvelable est développé. Les résultats sont discutés sur la base des données historiques. La méthode développée reste cependant suffisamment générique pour s’appliquer à des évolutions futures de mix. Enfin, une méthode d’élaboration des inventaires génériques est proposée. Prenant en compte les différentes situations auxquelles le praticien pourrait être confronté lors de la réalisation d’une ACV conséquentielle d’un produit, elle rend possible l’élaboration des inventaires électricité génériques pour ACV conséquentielle. L’établissement de données génériques quantifiées nécessiterait l’intégration d’un critère qualitatif d’inertie au changement et la validation de plusieurs cas d’étude à travers une étude statistique pour consolider les résultats / Climate change mitigation involves changes in production and consumption ways to boost a radical decrease in Greenhouse Gases (GHG) emissions, which come mostly from fossil fuels combustion. To meet these challenges, a lot of countries initiated an energy transition to switch to new energy system, especially concerning electricity production, in such a way that they partly fulfil low carbon economy requirements. To provide decision-makers guidance in their strategic choices, decision-aid tools are useful to identify and reduce environmental impacts burdens. In particular, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) which assesses environmental impacts throughout a product's life cycle is now a recognized and standard approach. Consequential LCA (cLCA), one of its most recent developments, assesses changes consequences considering either direct or indirect effects on environment. Currently, due to the lack of generic consequential Life Cycle Inventories (LCI), cLCA is scarcely used by practicioners. This situation is emphasized for electricity, due to its large involvement in technosphere and its shifts to production modes in the context of energy transition. This work aims at the development of a design methodology for generic inventories for consequential LCA, taking in account electricity technical specificities. Electricity is defined here as a different production means combination (a “mix”) which varies from country to country. To simplify electricity production mix, a typology is set using a GHG emissions study and electricity mix separation in production means. The typology identifies four groups, ranked by increasing GHG emissions, i.e, 0-37 gCO2eq/kWh, 37-300 gCO2eq/kWh, 300-600 gCO2eq/kWh and >600 gCO2eq/kWh, and specific compositions. Considering a consequential perspective, an evolution analysis of twelve selected countries from 1960 to 2010 is then conducted. Thus, an analysis of past transitions, i.e., shifting from a group to another, is given. Amono-objective optimisation model is developed, involving, first, the minimisation of GHG emissions, and secondly, the maximisation of renewable sources contribution. Significant results are then discussed based on historical data. The model is yet generic enough and can be applied to future mixes. Finally, a generic inventory development method for consequential LCA is proposed. Taking into account the different situations that practitioners may potentially meet when performing a consequential LCA of a product, the method makes generic inventory development for consequential LCA possible. The establishment of generic data would yet require the addition of a qualitative inertia-tochange criteria and the validation of various cases using a statistical analysis to strengthen the obtained results.

Our common future involves many important challenges. People and nature need to improve the relationship in order to reach an ecologically sustainable development. In a society where consumption of products steadily increases, the consumer awareness about social and environmental issues connected to the products becomes an importent factor. More and more companies choose to work more actively with these issues and more and more products get labelled by some of the eco labelling organisations. From the cradle to the gate means that a study has been done on a part of a products life cycle. In this master thesis a pair of cotton trousers has been followed from the cotton field and through the manufacturing chain in order to sees how much resource that are connected to the cultivation and to the production. Methological approach has been Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) according to ISO 14040. The empirical material is collected in South India, in an area known for its intense cotton manufacturing. Studies like this can be a good way of showing the environmental impacts of a certain product. LCI can for example work as a criterion for eco labelling, but the methodology could also support the overall environmental work in companies.

O presente trabalho apresenta uma proposta metodológica para se determinar a pegada hídrica ecotoxicológica (PHE) de produtos em uma perspectiva de ACV, dentro de uma abordagem crítica sobre o método. Cenários são construídos na forma de um estudo piloto de aplicação da metodologia para o etanol hidratado produzido por uma determinada Usina no Brasil e utilizado como combustível em carros a álcool ou carros flex. O trabalho também sugere que a PHE ou WEF (water ecotoxicity footprint ), na forma de um indicador, sirva de parâmetro tanto para o setor produtivo quanto para o mercado consumidor dentro do processo de tomada de decisão . O setor produtivo poderá utilizar o citado indicador dentro de um programa de metas de redução do nível de ecotoxicidade aquática de seu produto enquanto que, para o consumidor final, o conhecimento da PHE na forma de selo informativo servirá de alavanca rumo à evolução sustentável de nossa civilização que usará o seu poder de escolha na hora de adquirir determinado produto. Dentro da perspectiva de ACV, foram estudadas e inseridas formas de avaliação de impacto, no ponto médio, a nível local e regional com o uso de ferramentas de georeferenciamento. Na intenção de facilitar o uso da ACV no Brasil, o estudo estabelece parâmetros que tornam viável a obtenção de um indicador passível de comparação. Políticas Públicas poderão ser formadas com a possibilidade de incentivar a identificação e mitigação da ecotoxicidade aquática ao longo da cadeia de suprimentos do setor produtivo.. / This work presents a methodology to determine water ecotoxicity footprint of products in a perspective of LCA within a critical approach to the method. Scenarios are constructed in the form of a pilot study of application of the methodology for hydrous ethanol produced by a given plant in Brazil and used as fuel in flex cars. The work also suggests that the water ecotoxicity footprint, as an indicator, can be used as a parameter for both: the productive sector as well as for theend consumer within the decision-making process. The productive sector can use the cited indicator in a program targeting for reduction in aquatic ecotoxicity of your product while for the end consumer, knowledge of water ecotoxicity footprint in the form of a informative stamp will leverage towards sustainable development of our civilization that uses the power of choice when purchasing a product. From the perspective of LCA, were studied and included forms of impact assessment, at the midpoint, in local and regional level with the use of geo-referencing tools. With the intention of facilitating the use of LCA in Brazil, this study establishes criteria that make possible the comparison . Public policies can be formed with the possibility of encouraging the identification and mitigation of aquatic ecotoxicity along the supply chain of the productive sector..

O presente trabalho apresenta uma proposta metodológica para se determinar a pegada hídrica ecotoxicológica (PHE) de produtos em uma perspectiva de ACV, dentro de uma abordagem crítica sobre o método. Cenários são construídos na forma de um estudo piloto de aplicação da metodologia para o etanol hidratado produzido por uma determinada Usina no Brasil e utilizado como combustível em carros a álcool ou carros flex. O trabalho também sugere que a PHE ou WEF (water ecotoxicity footprint ), na forma de um indicador, sirva de parâmetro tanto para o setor produtivo quanto para o mercado consumidor dentro do processo de tomada de decisão . O setor produtivo poderá utilizar o citado indicador dentro de um programa de metas de redução do nível de ecotoxicidade aquática de seu produto enquanto que, para o consumidor final, o conhecimento da PHE na forma de selo informativo servirá de alavanca rumo à evolução sustentável de nossa civilização que usará o seu poder de escolha na hora de adquirir determinado produto. Dentro da perspectiva de ACV, foram estudadas e inseridas formas de avaliação de impacto, no ponto médio, a nível local e regional com o uso de ferramentas de georeferenciamento. Na intenção de facilitar o uso da ACV no Brasil, o estudo estabelece parâmetros que tornam viável a obtenção de um indicador passível de comparação. Políticas Públicas poderão ser formadas com a possibilidade de incentivar a identificação e mitigação da ecotoxicidade aquática ao longo da cadeia de suprimentos do setor produtivo.. / This work presents a methodology to determine water ecotoxicity footprint of products in a perspective of LCA within a critical approach to the method. Scenarios are constructed in the form of a pilot study of application of the methodology for hydrous ethanol produced by a given plant in Brazil and used as fuel in flex cars. The work also suggests that the water ecotoxicity footprint, as an indicator, can be used as a parameter for both: the productive sector as well as for theend consumer within the decision-making process. The productive sector can use the cited indicator in a program targeting for reduction in aquatic ecotoxicity of your product while for the end consumer, knowledge of water ecotoxicity footprint in the form of a informative stamp will leverage towards sustainable development of our civilization that uses the power of choice when purchasing a product. From the perspective of LCA, were studied and included forms of impact assessment, at the midpoint, in local and regional level with the use of geo-referencing tools. With the intention of facilitating the use of LCA in Brazil, this study establishes criteria that make possible the comparison . Public policies can be formed with the possibility of encouraging the identification and mitigation of aquatic ecotoxicity along the supply chain of the productive sector..