O comportamento materno consiste em um conjunto de mudanças comportamentais e fisiológicas, exercidas pelos indivíduos adultos em torno dos indivíduos reprodutivamente imaturos, garantindo sua sobrevivência e a propagação de sua espécie. A interação mãe e filhote é tida tipicamente como simbiótica. Os filhotes quando separados da mãe sinalizam para serem recolhidos através de dicas olfativas, visuais e da vocalização que representa uma forma de comunicação filhote e mãe. O modelo de febre clássico e amplamente empregado envolve a utilização do lipopolissacarídeo (LPS), principal componente da parede celular de bactérias Gram-Negativas. Além da febre, as infecções apresentam uma cadeia de respostas não especificas do hospedeiro que se sabe estarem envolvidos em muitas das funções vitais, incluindo a resposta imune estas incluem a hipozinquemia. Sendo assim, fêmeas virgens, gestantes e lactantes receberam LPS (100 µg/kg, i.p.) e foram tratadas com zinco (2 mg/kg, s.c.) O peso corporal, consumo de água, ração, e a temperatura corporal foram medidas por noventa e seis horas, duas horas após a administração do LPS. No quinto dia de lactação foram observados o comportamento maternal, a atividade geral em campo aberto e a vocalização ultrassônica nos filhotes. No dia do desmame os filhotes dessas fêmeas receberam um desafio com LPS (50 µg/kg, i.p.) e duas horas após a administração, foram observados a atividade geral em campo aberto, e o burst e fagocitose de neutrófilos. Observamos que: 1) Em ratas virgens, gestantes e lactantes, a exposição ao LPS e o tratamento com zinco modificou de forma específica a temperatura e peso corporal, consumo de água e ração e a atividade geral observadas em campo aberto; 2) No período de lactação, houve redução da latência para busca do primeiro filhote. Na prole das fêmeas lactantes verificou-se que: 3) Houve alteração no padrão de vocalização dos filhotes; 4) houve alteração na atividade geral observada em campo aberto e no burst e fagocitose de neutrófilos no vigésimo primeiro dia pós natal, após um desafio com a endotoxina, Assim, os resultados indicam que a administração de LPS e o tratamento com zinco têm seus efeitos modulados conforme o estágio fisiológico em que a fêmea se encontra, e interfere com a interação mãe/filhote, resultando em efeitos de curto e longo prazo sobre o comportamento dos filhotes. A partir deste trabalho, a possibilidade da exposição de mães à endotoxina bacteriana e da modulação de seus efeitos pelo zinco programar as respostas inflamatórias dos filhos torna-se factível / The maternal behavior consists of a set of behavioral and physiological changes, performed by adults around the reproductively immature individuals, ensuring their survival and propagation of their species. The mother and pups’ interaction is typically seen as symbiotic. Puppies give signal to be collected when separated from their mother, through olfactory, visual and vocalization tips that represents a form of communication between mother and pup. The classic disease model is widely used involves the use of lipopolysaccharide (LPS), the major component of the cell wall of Gram-negative bacteria. In addition to fever, infections present a chain of non-specific host responses known to be involved in many vital functions, including the immune response these include hypokinemia. Therefore, virgin, pregnant and lactating female rats received LPS (100 µg/kg, ip) and were treated with zinc (2 mg/kg, sc). Temperature and Body weight, water and food consumptions were measured for ninety-six hours, two hours after LPS administration. On the fifth day of lactation were observed maternal behavior, the overall activity in the open field and ultrasonic vocalization in puppies. On the day of weaning pups of these females received a challenge with LPS (50 µg/kg, ip) two hours after administration were observed general activity in the open field and the burst and phagocytosis of leukocytes. We observed that: In virgin, pregnant and lactating, the exposure to LPS and the treatment with zinc, modified of the form differentially between these females, the temperature and body weight, water and food consumption, and the general activity observed in the open field; In the lactation period the latency to search the first pup was reduced. In the offspring, it was found that: There was a change in the pattern of vocalization of the puppies; changes in general activity observed in the open field and in burst and phagocytosis of leukocytes in the twenty-first day of lactation after challenge with endotoxin. Thus, the results indicate that administration of LPS and treatment with zinc have effects modulated according to the physiological stage when the female is, and interferes with the interaction between mother and puppies, resulting in short and long term effects on behavior their offspring. From this work, the possibility of the exposure of mothers to bacterial endotoxin modulates the effects caused by zinc, programing the inflammatory responses in their offspring, becomes feasible

O reparo ósseo é um processo que consiste na restauração dos tecidos. Ele pode ser facilitado através de enxertos, estimulação bioquímica e estimulação física. Por outro lado, pode ser retardado por endotoxina (lipopolissacarídeo; LPS). O exercício físico exerce efeito benéfico para o osso, porém não é reconhecido o efeito sobre a reparação óssea. Assim, investigamos o efeito do exercício físico sobre a ação do LPS no reparo ósseo, por meio, de dosagens de citocinas plasmáticas, densitometria óssea, análise histológica quantitativa do tecido ósseo neoformado e marcadores imuno-histoquímicos, em animais sedentários e treinados. Os ratos foram divididos em quatro grupos: sedentário salina, sedentário LPS, exercício salina e exercício LPS. O exercício consistiu no treinamento físico na esteira durante quatro semanas. Após o treinamento, os ratos foram submetidos à cirurgia para confecção do defeito ósseo na tíbia direita e 24 horas após a cirurgia o LPS foi administrado na dose de 100 ?g/kg ou 1 ml/kg de salina, intraperitoneal. Finalmente, após 10 dias o sangue e as tíbias direitas foram obtidos para as análises, período em que os animais não foram submetidos ao treinamento físico. Os ratos treinados tiveram menor peso corporal do que os ratos sedentários (P<0,001). O exercício físico exerceu efeito positivo na reparação óssea, aumentando a densidade mineral óssea (P<0,005), o conteúdo mineral ósseo (P<0,005), a neoformação óssea (P<0,005), o colágeno tipo I (P<0,05) e a expressão de osteocalcina (P<0,05). As citocinas plasmáticas não foram detectadas na análise. Esses parâmetros não foram afetados pela administração sistêmica de LPS. Assim, os dados são consistentes com o conceito de que o exercício físico exerce um importante efeito osteogênico, que é mantido durante a inflamação sistêmica aguda induzida por uma única dose de LPS. / Bone repair is a process involved in the restoration of injured tissues. It can be facilitated by grafting, biochemical and physical stimulation. On the other hand, may be delayed by endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide; LPS). Physical exercise exerts beneficial effects on the bone, but is not known its effect on bone repair. Thus, we investigated the effect of exercise on the LPS action on bone repair through plasma cytokine measurements, bone densitometry, quantitative histological analysis for new bone tissue and immunohistochemical markers in sedentary and exercised animals. Rats were divided into four groups: sedentary saline, sedentary LPS, exercise saline and exercise LPS. Exercise consisted in physical training on the treadmill for four weeks. After training, rats underwent surgery for making the bone defect in the right tibia and 24 hours after the surgery LPS was administered at a dose of 100 g/kg or 1 ml/kg saline, intraperitonial. Eventually, blood and right tibias were obtained for analysis after 10 days when rats were not submitted to physical training. Exercised rats had lower body weight than the sedentary rats (P<0,001). The physical exercise had a positive effect on bone repair, increased bone mineral density (P<0,005), bone mineral content (P<0,005), bone formation (P<0,005), type I collagen (P<0,05) and osteocalcin expression (P<0,05). Plasma cytokines were not detected in the analysis. These parameters were not affected by systemic administration of LPS. Thus, our data are consistent with the notion that physical exercise has an important osteogenic effect, which is maintained during acute systemic inflammation induced by exposition to a single dose of LPS.

Orientador: Luiz Cláudio Nogueira Mendes / Co-orientador: Juliana Regina Peiró / Banca: Francisco Leydson Formiga Feitosa / Banca: Lina Maria Werle Gomide / Banca: José Corrêa de Lacerda Neto / Banca: Lilian Gregory / Resumo: O presente estudo teve como objetivo avaliar o perfil sérico de citocinas e da temperatura da superfície corpórea de ovinos submetidos à endotoxemia experimental. Foram empregados dez ovinos, com aproximadamente quatro anos de idade do Setor de Grandes Animais da Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária de Araçatuba. Os animais foram segregados aleatoriamente em dois grupos compostos por cinco animais cada: grupo tratado inoculado com LPS (Escherichia coli 055: B5: Sigma, St. Louis, MO) na dose de 400 ng/Kg; grupo controle inoculado com 2 mL de solução fisiológica 0,9% de cloreto de sódio (NaCl). Foi realizado o exame físico dos animais, no momento de sua admissão, bem como a coleta de sangue para o perfil de citocinas (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-2 e IL-13), e as 2, 4, 6, 12, 24, 36, 48 e 60 horas, após a administração do LPS ou solução fisiológica. As citocinas foram mensuradas pelo teste de ELISA. A temperatura retal foi avaliada por um termômetro clínico de mercúrio. A temperatura de superfície corpórea foi avaliada por termômetro infravermelho de mão e de não contato e por termografia de imagem infravermelha nas regiões da fronte, dorso, axilar, face externa e interna da coxa, e períneo. As concentrações séricas de citocinas não sofreram alterações significativas. A temperatura retal atingiu o pico de 40,6ºC em 4 horas após a inoculação do LPS. A temperatura da superfície corpórea, mensurada pela termografia por imagem infravermelha, foi inicialmente aumentada em 6 horas após a inoculação do LPS, entretanto a temperatura máxima da pele foi registrada em 12 horas. Esta situação ocorreu com a temperatura das regiões da fronte, dorso, axilar, face externa e interna da coxa dos ovinos. Este foi o primeiro trabalho relacionado ao perfil sérico de citocinas de ovinos submetidos à endotoxemia. Conclui-se que a termografia por imagem infravermelha pode ser utilizada...(Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: The present study aimed to evaluate the serum cytokine profile and the temperature of the body surface of sheep undergoing experimental endotoxemia. Ten suffolk sheep with approximately four years of age were used. The animals were randomly separated into two groups comprising five animals each: one group was treated with LPS (Escherichia coli 055: B5: Sigma, St. Louis, MO) at a dose of 400 ng/kg, the control group was inoculated with 2 mL of 0.9% physiological solution of sodium chloride (NaCl). We conducted a physical examination of animals at the time of his admission, and blood collection for the profile of cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-2 and IL-13), and at 2, 4, 6, 12, 24, 36, 48 and 60 hours after administration of LPS or saline. Cytokines were measured by ELISA. Rectal temperature was measured by a clinical thermometer. The body surface temperature was measured by infrared hand-held and non-contact thermometer and thermography and infrared imaging were done in regions of the forehead, back, underarm, face external and inner thigh, and perineum. Serum levels of cytokines did not change significantly. Rectal temperature peaked at 40.6°C in 4 hours after the LPS inoculation. The body surface temperature, measured by infrared thermography was initially increased at 6 hours after the LPS inoculation, however, the maximum skin temperature was recorded at 12 hours. This situation occurred with the temperature regions of the forehead, back, underarm, face external and internal thigh sheep. This study show for the first time the cytokine profile of sheep submitted to endotoxemia. The results obtained in this study show for the thermography infrared imaging can be used for the analysis of skin temperature of the sheep, so this technique should be incorporated into routine clinical veterinarians as auxiliary tool for early diagnosis of endotoxemia

O comportamento materno consiste em um conjunto de mudanças comportamentais e fisiológicas, exercidas pelos indivíduos adultos em torno dos indivíduos reprodutivamente imaturos, garantindo sua sobrevivência e a propagação de sua espécie. A interação mãe e filhote é tida tipicamente como simbiótica. Os filhotes quando separados da mãe sinalizam para serem recolhidos através de dicas olfativas, visuais e da vocalização que representa uma forma de comunicação filhote e mãe. O modelo de febre clássico e amplamente empregado envolve a utilização do lipopolissacarídeo (LPS), principal componente da parede celular de bactérias Gram-Negativas. Além da febre, as infecções apresentam uma cadeia de respostas não especificas do hospedeiro que se sabe estarem envolvidos em muitas das funções vitais, incluindo a resposta imune estas incluem a hipozinquemia. Sendo assim, fêmeas virgens, gestantes e lactantes receberam LPS (100 &micro;g/kg, i.p.) e foram tratadas com zinco (2 mg/kg, s.c.) O peso corporal, consumo de água, ração, e a temperatura corporal foram medidas por noventa e seis horas, duas horas após a administração do LPS. No quinto dia de lactação foram observados o comportamento maternal, a atividade geral em campo aberto e a vocalização ultrassônica nos filhotes. No dia do desmame os filhotes dessas fêmeas receberam um desafio com LPS (50 &micro;g/kg, i.p.) e duas horas após a administração, foram observados a atividade geral em campo aberto, e o burst e fagocitose de neutrófilos. Observamos que: 1) Em ratas virgens, gestantes e lactantes, a exposição ao LPS e o tratamento com zinco modificou de forma específica a temperatura e peso corporal, consumo de água e ração e a atividade geral observadas em campo aberto; 2) No período de lactação, houve redução da latência para busca do primeiro filhote. Na prole das fêmeas lactantes verificou-se que: 3) Houve alteração no padrão de vocalização dos filhotes; 4) houve alteração na atividade geral observada em campo aberto e no burst e fagocitose de neutrófilos no vigésimo primeiro dia pós natal, após um desafio com a endotoxina, Assim, os resultados indicam que a administração de LPS e o tratamento com zinco têm seus efeitos modulados conforme o estágio fisiológico em que a fêmea se encontra, e interfere com a interação mãe/filhote, resultando em efeitos de curto e longo prazo sobre o comportamento dos filhotes. A partir deste trabalho, a possibilidade da exposição de mães à endotoxina bacteriana e da modulação de seus efeitos pelo zinco programar as respostas inflamatórias dos filhos torna-se factível / The maternal behavior consists of a set of behavioral and physiological changes, performed by adults around the reproductively immature individuals, ensuring their survival and propagation of their species. The mother and pups&rsquo; interaction is typically seen as symbiotic. Puppies give signal to be collected when separated from their mother, through olfactory, visual and vocalization tips that represents a form of communication between mother and pup. The classic disease model is widely used involves the use of lipopolysaccharide (LPS), the major component of the cell wall of Gram-negative bacteria. In addition to fever, infections present a chain of non-specific host responses known to be involved in many vital functions, including the immune response these include hypokinemia. Therefore, virgin, pregnant and lactating female rats received LPS (100 &micro;g/kg, ip) and were treated with zinc (2 mg/kg, sc). Temperature and Body weight, water and food consumptions were measured for ninety-six hours, two hours after LPS administration. On the fifth day of lactation were observed maternal behavior, the overall activity in the open field and ultrasonic vocalization in puppies. On the day of weaning pups of these females received a challenge with LPS (50 &micro;g/kg, ip) two hours after administration were observed general activity in the open field and the burst and phagocytosis of leukocytes. We observed that: In virgin, pregnant and lactating, the exposure to LPS and the treatment with zinc, modified of the form differentially between these females, the temperature and body weight, water and food consumption, and the general activity observed in the open field; In the lactation period the latency to search the first pup was reduced. In the offspring, it was found that: There was a change in the pattern of vocalization of the puppies; changes in general activity observed in the open field and in burst and phagocytosis of leukocytes in the twenty-first day of lactation after challenge with endotoxin. Thus, the results indicate that administration of LPS and treatment with zinc have effects modulated according to the physiological stage when the female is, and interferes with the interaction between mother and puppies, resulting in short and long term effects on behavior their offspring. From this work, the possibility of the exposure of mothers to bacterial endotoxin modulates the effects caused by zinc, programing the inflammatory responses in their offspring, becomes feasible

RfaH is a unique bacterial protein that enhances transcription of a select group of long operons in many Gram-negative bacteria. Operons regulated by RfaH possess an upstream operon polarity suppressor sequence, which recruits the RfaH protein to the RNA polymerase during transcription of genes, most of which are involved in the synthesis of cell-surface features. These include synthesis of the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) core and O-antigen in Salmonella and Escherichia coli, as well as F-plasmid conjugation pilus and capsule in E. coli. LPS is an important virulence factor in many Gram-negative bacteria, and protects Y. pseudotuberculosis against host antimicrobial chemokines. Recently published high-throughput transposon mutant screens have also suggested a role for RfaH in the ability of Y. pseudotuberculosis to colonize mice. However, the role of RfaH in Y. pseudotuberculosis and its descendent Yersinia pestis has not been carefully examined. In these studies we investigated the effect RfaH has on the structure of the LPS in both species at different temperatures. We also identified LPS-synthesis related genes that are regulated by RfaH. We determined the effect of RfaH on bacterial resistance to host defense peptides, and the ability of Y. pseudotuberculosis to colonize mice. We found that the loss of the rfaH gene had different effects in Y. pseudotuberculosis and Y. pestis. Loss of rfaH caused a truncation in the core region in Y. pseudotuberculosis strain IP32953 at both 21°C and 37°C, but only at 37°C in Y. pestis strain KIM6+. Similarly, we found that transcription of individual genes that are predicted to function in core or O-antigen synthesis were downregulated in the rfaH mutant strains in both species, but the impact of rfaH deletion was greater in Y. pseudotuberculosis. When tested for their ability to survive in the presence of antimicrobial peptides, the Y. pseudotuberculosis rfaH deficient bacteria were much more susceptible than wild-type to killing by polymyxin and by the antimicrobial chemokine CCL28. However, the Y. pestis rfaH mutant strain was equally susceptible to CCL28 as the wild-type strain. Infection of mice with Y. pseudotuberculosis show that rfaH deficient bacteria were able to survive as effectively as the wild-type following oral or intravenous inoculation, with or without the pYV virulence plasmid. Overall, our results show that while RfaH controls LPS gene expression in both Y. pseudotuberculosis and Y. pestis, its impact is much greater in Y. pseudotuberculosis. Furthermore, although loss of rfaH greatly reduces the ability of Y. pseudotuberculosis to resist antimicrobial peptides, it is not required for virulence in this species.

Despite the convergence of rapid technological advances in genomics and the maturing field of ecoimmunology, our understanding of the genes that regulate immunity in wild populations is still nascent. Previous work to assess immune function has relied upon relatively crude measures of immunocompetence. However, with next-generation RNA-sequencing, it is now possible to create a profile of gene expression in response to an immune challenge. In this study, captive zebra finch (Taeniopygia guttata; adult males) were challenged with bacterial lipopolysaccharide (2 mg/Kg BW; dissolved in 0.9% saline) or vehicle (0.9% saline) to stimulate the immune system. Two hours after injection, birds were euthanized and hypothalami, spleen, and red blood cells (RBCs) were collected. Taking advantage of the fully sequenced genome of zebra finch, total RNA was isolated, sequenced, and partially annotated in these tissue/cells. The data show 628 significantly upregulated transcripts in the hypothalamus, as well as 439 and 121 in the spleen and RBCs, respectively, relative to controls. Also, 134 transcripts in the hypothalamus, 517 in the spleen, and 61 in the RBCs were significantly downregulated. More specifically, a number of immunity-related transcripts (e.g., IL-1β, RSAD2, SOCS3) were upregulated among tissues/cells. Additionally, transcripts involved in metabolic processes (APOD, LRAT, RBP4) were downregulated, suggesting a potential trade-off in expression of genes that regulate immunity and metabolism. Unlike mammals, birds have nucleated RBCs, and these results suggest a novel transcriptomic response of RBCs to immune challenge. Lastly, molecular biomarkers could be developed to rapidly screen bird populations by simple blood sampling in the field.

An intestinal cell line from rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, was developed and challenged against several bioactive components. Primary cultures initiated from the distal segment produced the cell line, RTgutGC. RTgutGC showed optimal growth in L15 supplemented with 10-20% fetal bovine serum (FBS) at room temperature. RTgutGC has undergone over 100 passages and stained minimally for β-galactosidase, suggesting this to be an immortal cell line. Late passage cultures gave a consistent polygonal morphology with distinct borders. RTgutGC stained positive for alkaline phosphatase (AP) under certain culture conditions, hence may produce intestinal-specific alkaline phosphatase (IAP). Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) was used as a model microbial endotoxin for determining the sensitivity of the cells to a natural ligand in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT). Exposure of LPS was compared between RTgutGC and two mammalian intestinal cell lines (HT-29 and Caco-2). LPS induced cell death in RTgutGC, potentially through an alternative pathway seen in higher vertebrate response. Cytotoxicity of LPS against RTgutGC, seeded at normal density, was reduced in the presence of glutamine compared to L15 alone (t test, p≤ 0.05). RTgutGC seeded at a super density, where AP was strongly expressed, also showed less toxicity towards LPS. Two isoforms of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) transcripts were up-regulated after LPS treatment in RTgutGC. Six rainbow trout cell lines, including RTgutGC, showed constitutive transcript expression of several immune-related genes: Major Histocompatibility (MH) class II α and ß. When MH activity was examined at the protein level, the cell lines showed constitutive expression of MH class I proteins, but not for MH class II molecules. RTS11, a rainbow trout spleen monocyte/ macrophage-like cell line, was the only line to express all MH transcripts and proteins. The utility of the anti-rainbow trout MH protein sera was demonstrated by exposing RTgutGC to poly IC. After a 3 day treatment, RTgutGC showed up-regulation of β2m protein expression. Thus, the cellular and immunological responses in fish intestinal cells can be modeled using the methods presented in this study.

An intestinal cell line from rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, was developed and challenged against several bioactive components. Primary cultures initiated from the distal segment produced the cell line, RTgutGC. RTgutGC showed optimal growth in L15 supplemented with 10-20% fetal bovine serum (FBS) at room temperature. RTgutGC has undergone over 100 passages and stained minimally for β-galactosidase, suggesting this to be an immortal cell line. Late passage cultures gave a consistent polygonal morphology with distinct borders. RTgutGC stained positive for alkaline phosphatase (AP) under certain culture conditions, hence may produce intestinal-specific alkaline phosphatase (IAP). Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) was used as a model microbial endotoxin for determining the sensitivity of the cells to a natural ligand in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT). Exposure of LPS was compared between RTgutGC and two mammalian intestinal cell lines (HT-29 and Caco-2). LPS induced cell death in RTgutGC, potentially through an alternative pathway seen in higher vertebrate response. Cytotoxicity of LPS against RTgutGC, seeded at normal density, was reduced in the presence of glutamine compared to L15 alone (t test, p≤ 0.05). RTgutGC seeded at a super density, where AP was strongly expressed, also showed less toxicity towards LPS. Two isoforms of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) transcripts were up-regulated after LPS treatment in RTgutGC. Six rainbow trout cell lines, including RTgutGC, showed constitutive transcript expression of several immune-related genes: Major Histocompatibility (MH) class II α and ß. When MH activity was examined at the protein level, the cell lines showed constitutive expression of MH class I proteins, but not for MH class II molecules. RTS11, a rainbow trout spleen monocyte/ macrophage-like cell line, was the only line to express all MH transcripts and proteins. The utility of the anti-rainbow trout MH protein sera was demonstrated by exposing RTgutGC to poly IC. After a 3 day treatment, RTgutGC showed up-regulation of β2m protein expression. Thus, the cellular and immunological responses in fish intestinal cells can be modeled using the methods presented in this study.

Biological membranes are quasi two-dimensional self-assembled structure, primarily serving as a barrier to the leakage of cell’s contents. The main constituents of biological membrane are various amphiphilic lipids that form bilayers in an aqueous environment. These lipids carry acidic and/or basic functional groups that ionize in water, giving some of them a net electrical charge. Such a lipid molecule, when integrated into the membrane, experiences electrostatic forces from all other charged objects around it, including ions, surrounding lipids, and other molecules such as cationic peptides. The electrostatic interaction can profoundly influence the membrane, to which many phenomena with physiological significance as well as biophysical interest can be ascribed. In this thesis, we concentrate on investigating the electrostatic properties of lipid membranes. First, we study how the electrostatic interaction affects their preferred structure. To this end, we adopt a coarse-grain model that preserves the dominant characteristics of the lipids, in which the electrostatic interaction is treated within the “renormalized” Debye-H¨uckel theory. In particular, we calculate the spontaneous curvature of a phospholipid monolayer, along with other associated quantities. Our results suggest that such divalent ions as Mg2+ can stabilize HII phases of lipids (inverted hexagonal phases), which would otherwise form lamellar phases. Second,we investigate the competitive binding of ions and cationic peptides onto a monolayer of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) molecules, a class of highly charged bio-molecules found in the outer leaflet of the outer membranes of gram-negative (G-) bacteria. Cationic anti-microbial peptides (AMPs) can selectively kill bacteria, and it is suggested that they destabilize the LPS layer, easing their permeation across it, a process of great physiological and clinical interest. To this end, we model the LPS layer as a collection of charged “binding sites”, based on which we study the binding of cations (monovalent and divalent) and cationic peptides onto the layer. Our calculations suggest that the peptides can compete with divalent ions on the binding to the layer. It has been empirically known that since the stability of an LPS layer relies greatly on the bridging of divalent ions, the substitution of these ions by the peptides significantly compromises its stability. Our results offer a quantitative basis for this observation, thus providing a possible mechanism of an important step in the action of AMPs against G- bacteria.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic, systemic inflammatory disorder that may affect many tissues and organs but principally attacks synovial joints. All the symptoms of RA are mainly caused by cell inflammation, which results in cellular infiltration and synovial hyperplasia, finally leading to severe bone erosion. Existing drugs (steroids, non-steroid antiinflammatory drugs, disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs, etc.) can attenuate the symptoms of RA; however, these drugs also have many side effects. Therefore, it is necessary to discover new drugs for RA. Excavatolide B (Exc-B) is derived from the gorgonian coral. In our preliminary observations, Exc-B strongly inhibited lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced proinflammatory inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) protein expression in RAW264.7 macrophages. The present study also showed that Exc-B significantly attenuates the expressions of osteoclast-like gene, cathepsin K, and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 in LPS-treated RAW 264.7 cells. Moreover, in the adjuvant-induced RA animal model, Exc-B effectively reduced the swelling and arthritic index from the morphological viewpoint as well as reduced bone erosion and synovial hyperplasia from the pathological viewpoint. Our data indicates that Exc-B can inhibit disease progression in RA. Hence, Exc-B may serve as a useful therapeutic agent for the treatment of RA.