This experimental study compares green printing technologies (ink and stock) to traditional printing technologies (ink and stock) regarding how they compare in quality. The quality was measured using the print characteristics of gray balance and dot gain. A comparison of the two independent variables (ink and stock) was conducted to determine if a difference exists for the selected characteristics. It has been suggested that the green technologies, despite being more environmentally friendly, are not as high in quality and therefore result in a lower quality printed piece. This research used a four-color test form that was printed using both the green and traditional technologies. The characteristics were measured using an X-rite 528 spectrodensitometer, after which the data were analyzed and conclusions reported. The results of the study suggest that there is no practical significance between the different inks and stocks employed in this study. It was determined however that the best print quality in terms of dot gain (meaning the least amount of dot gain) resulted from the combination of green technologies (ink and paper). / Department of Technology

Disertacijos tikslas buvo sukurti metodą periodinių darinių formavimui interferencinės litografijos būdu, polimerizuojant fotojautrias medžiagas, eksperimentiškai ištirti šio metodo galimybes ir ribojimus bei suformuoti mikrodarinius, tinkamus praktiniams taikymams. Eksperimentų metu buvo pademonstruota, kad interferencinės litografijos metodu formuojamų mikrodarinių forma priklauso nuo: lazerinės apšvitos dozės, bangos ilgio, fazės, kampo tarp interferuojančių pluoštų ir pluoštų skaičiaus, o jų tvirtumas labiausiai priklauso nuo lazerinės apšvitos dozės. Šiame darbe taip pat parodyta, kad naudojant interferencinės litografijos metodą viena lazerine ekspozicija galima formuoti mikrovamzdelių ir mikrolęšių masyvus bei karkasus iš biosuderinamos ir biosuskaidomos PEG-DA-258 medžiagos. Be polimerinių darinių formavimo, šiame darbe pademonstruota ir jų fotomodifikavimo galimybė, naudojant fotoįskiepijimo (angl. photo-grafting) technologiją, o taip pat realizuojant variu katalizuojamos azido alkino ciklizacijos (CuAAC) cheminę reakciją parodyta fotoįskiepijimo technologijos ir „klik“ chemijos apjungimo galimybė. Toks paprastas ir universalus būdas atveria naujas galimybes biojutiklių kūrime ir audinių inžinerijoje, nes molekulių imobilizavimas polimero matricoje vyksta trimatėje erdvėje ir tiksliai norimoje vietoje, o trimatė erdvinė gradientinė kontrolė yra labai svarbi daugybėje biotechnologijos taikymų. / The main aim of this work was to develop the formation technique of periodic micro-structures by interference lithography in photosensitive polymeric materials, experimentally investigate possibilities and limitations of the method, and to create micro-structures suitable for practical applications. The shape of the micro-structures fabricated by interference lithography depends on the used laser irradiation dose, laser wavelength, phase, polarization, the angle between interfering beams and the number of the interfering beams, and their rigidity - mainly on the used laser irradiation dose. In this work also the possibility to form micro-tube and scaffolds arrays by using interference lithography was demonstrated and the control of the geometrical parameters of micro-lenses fabricated by interference lithography and manipulating the laser irradiation dose was investigated in depth. The possibility to immobilize the newly synthesized aromatic azides molecules in PEG matrix by photo-grafting technique was also demonstrated and the copper(I)-catalyzed azide–alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC) chemical reaction by using azide “MegaStokes dye 673” was realized, in order to show the capability to combine the photo-grafting technique with “click” chemistry. The developed 3D site-specific functionalization method is simple and versatile; it has potential applications in micro-array based proteome analysis, studies of cell-surface interactions, sensing applications, and drug screening.

The main aim of this work was to develop the formation technique of periodic micro-structures by interference lithography in photosensitive polymeric materials, experimentally investigate possibilities and limitations of the method, and to create micro-structures suitable for practical applications. The shape of the micro-structures fabricated by interference lithography depends on the used laser irradiation dose, laser wavelength, phase, polarization, the angle between interfering beams and the number of the interfering beams, and their rigidity - mainly on the used laser irradiation dose. In this work also the possibility to form micro-tube and scaffolds arrays by using interference lithography was demonstrated and the control of the geometrical parameters of micro-lenses fabricated by interference lithography and manipulating the laser irradiation dose was investigated in depth. The possibility to immobilize the newly synthesized aromatic azides molecules in PEG matrix by photo-grafting technique was also demonstrated and the copper(I)-catalyzed azide–alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC) chemical reaction by using azide “MegaStokes dye 673” was realized, in order to show the capability to combine the photo-grafting technique with “click” chemistry. The developed 3D site-specific functionalization method is simple and versatile; it has potential applications in micro-array based proteome analysis, studies of cell-surface interactions, sensing applications, and drug screening. / Disertacijos tikslas buvo sukurti metodą periodinių darinių formavimui interferencinės litografijos būdu, polimerizuojant fotojautrias medžiagas, eksperimentiškai ištirti šio metodo galimybes ir ribojimus bei suformuoti mikrodarinius, tinkamus praktiniams taikymams. Eksperimentų metu buvo pademonstruota, kad interferencinės litografijos metodu formuojamų mikrodarinių forma priklauso nuo: lazerinės apšvitos dozės, bangos ilgio, fazės, kampo tarp interferuojančių pluoštų ir pluoštų skaičiaus, o jų tvirtumas labiausiai priklauso nuo lazerinės apšvitos dozės. Šiame darbe taip pat parodyta, kad naudojant interferencinės litografijos metodą viena lazerine ekspozicija galima formuoti mikrovamzdelių ir mikrolęšių masyvus bei karkasus iš biosuderinamos ir biosuskaidomos PEG-DA-258 medžiagos. Be polimerinių darinių formavimo, šiame darbe pademonstruota ir jų fotomodifikavimo galimybė, naudojant fotoįskiepijimo (angl. photo-grafting) technologiją, o taip pat realizuojant variu katalizuojamos azido alkino ciklizacijos (CuAAC) cheminę reakciją parodyta fotoįskiepijimo technologijos ir „klik“ chemijos apjungimo galimybė. Toks paprastas ir universalus būdas atveria naujas galimybes biojutiklių kūrime ir audinių inžinerijoje, nes molekulių imobilizavimas polimero matricoje vyksta trimatėje erdvėje ir tiksliai norimoje vietoje, o trimatė erdvinė gradientinė kontrolė yra labai svarbi daugybėje biotechnologijos taikymų.

This work presents the novel applications of heated AFM tip in nanolithography. Different strategies were investigated for patterning materials using heated AFM tip. New materials were developed for these new nanolithography methods. Simulation and modeling work was done to further understand the heat transfer and chemical reactions involved in the thermal writing process. The selective thermal decomposition of polymer was the first thermal patterning method we¡¯ve investigated. A couple of different sacrificial polymers were used as the writing materials. Among these materials, the cross-linked amorphous polycarbonate (CPC-IV) was the best material for this application. The effect of cross-linking density on the performance of the material was investigated. A novel 3D thermal writing technology was developed by using cross-linked polymer as the writing material. A combined method utilizing the heated cantilever probe to pattern a polymer masking layer that can serve as a template for area selective atomic layer deposition techniques was developed. Another thermal probe nanolithography method, thermal probe top surface imaging, was also developed. In this method, the heated AFM tip was used to generate functional groups on the polymer surface, and ALD was used to selectively deposit TiO2 on the surface where contains those functional groups. A new poly (hydroxyl styrene) based copolymer was developed for this method. We also investigated self assembly monolayers (SAMs) as the thermal writing material. Two different SAMs were investigated. One the APTES and the other one is THP-MPTES. We demonstrated that the APTES can be patterned using thermal AFM probe, and other materials can be selectively deposited on the patterned APTES SAMs. Thermal AFM probe was used to selectively generate thiol groups from THP-MPTES SAMs, and then use these thiol groups to guide the deposition AuNPs. Some simulation and modeling works were also done to further understand these processes. FemLab was used to analyze the heat transfer in the thermal cantilever and between the heated tip and substrate. Based on kinetics of polymer thermal decomposition, we built a simple model for the selective thermal decomposition nanolithography. The experimental results can be very well fitted by this model.

Thesis (Ph.D.) - University of St Andrews, November 2007.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of California, San Diego, 2000. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Duke University, 2008. / Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Texas at Austin, 2004. / Supervisor: Michael D. Bryant. Vita. Includes bibliographical references.

Cette thèse a pour objet d’étudier l’impact qu’a eu l’arrivée de la lithographie sur la vision de l’estampe en France et en Angleterre au début du XIXe siècle. Elle s’appuie sur la critique d’art que l’on trouve dans la presse des deux pays. Elle propose tout d’abord une revue de la littérature sur l’estampe depuis son apparition, afin de mettre en évidence les grands types d’écrits qui existent à son sujet et de mettre en lumière les différentes problématiques qui apparaissent au XVIIIe siècle. Dans cette optique, on étudie particulièrement les relations entre l’estampe et les institutions artistiques : l’impact des questionnements académiques en France et la recherche d’une légitimité officielle en Angleterre. La lithographie gagne les deux pays dans des conditions semblables. Mais, malgré quelques développements en Angleterre, elle ne parvient à s’implanter dans aucune des deux capitales. C’est un rapport français de l’Institut en 1817 qui réveille la curiosité à son égard et lui ouvre le champ d’une vraie popularité. Dans les années qui suivent, avant 1824, la situation est déséquilibrée entre les deux pays. En France, la pierre se diffuse mais rencontre des réticences politiques et idéologiques. Au contraire, alors qu’elle avait soulevé l’enthousiasme de ce pays, elle est freinée par d’importantes difficultés techniques en Angleterre. A partir de 1825 environ, sa situation se normalise de part et d’autre de la Manche et le nombre d’articles à son sujet augmente. En France, elle devient un enjeu artistique et est souvent rapprochée de l’estampe anglaise : toutes deux contribuent au développement de l’esthétique romantique. Au contraire, l’Angleterre regarde plutôt la gravure institutionnelle française et aspire à être reconnue pour ses grands formats : elle se montre alors plutôt indifférente à la lithographie. On constate donc que la France et l’Angleterre ne cessent d’observer leurs productions mutuelles et de s’influencer mais, tout en se prêtant aux mêmes modes et en vivant des avancées techniques comparables, elles suivent des problématiques tout à fait différentes ; leurs visions de l’art ne font que se croiser sans se rejoindre durant cette décennie. / This thesis is about the invention of lithography and its impact on prints theory at the beginning of 19th century. Press articles dealing with artistic prints in France and in England are studied. Firstly, literature on engraving from its beginning to 18th century is perused, in order to classify the existing types of texts. This analysis offers an opportunity to see the issues emerging around print during the second half of 18th century : France deals with academic controversies whereas English engraving is seeking for public recognition. After its invention, lithography is introduced in similar conditions in both countries. A few development occurs in England, but the new technology does not find its way in neither capitals. It is finally a French report of the Institute, in 1817, which offers a new start : information about it is broadly spread in French and British press. But during the next few years, the situation is very different in Paris and London. In France, the technique meets success in the street but official critic is reluctant to write about it because of political and ideological pressures. On the contrary, England is enthusiastic but cannot develop her production because she encounters with technical difficulties. After 1825, the amount of articles about lithography is growing in press. In Paris, it is considered as a new aesthetic, as well as imported English prints which meet a real success and are benchmarks for the world of prints : both contribute to the development of romanticism. On the contrary, England is envious of “grand genre” institutional French Engraving and rather focuses on large scale techniques : interest on mezzotinto on steel is awaken and a new interest on burin emerges. Therefore, Paris and London exchange their vision on engraving and this has a dynamic impact on their individual conceptions, but their visions never meet.

Depuis l'apparition du premier circuit intégré, le nombre de composants constituant une puce électronique n'a cessé d'augmenter tandis que les dimensions des composants ont continuellement diminué. Pour chaque nouveau nœud technologique, les procédés de fabrication se sont complexifiés pour permettre cette réduction de taille. L'étape de lithographie est une des étapes la plus critique pour permettre la miniaturisation. La technique de lithographie qui permet la production en masse est la lithographie optique par projection. Néanmoins cette technologie approche de ses limites en résolution et l'industrie cherche de nouvelles techniques pour continuer à réduire la taille des composants. Les candidats sont l'écriture en plusieurs passes, la lithographie EUV, l'écriture directe, la nano-impression ou l'auto-organisation dirigée. Même si ces alternatives reposent sur des principes très différents, chacune a en commun l'utilisation de la lithographie électronique à un moment ou à un autre de leur réalisation. La lithographie électronique est sujette à des phénomènes spécifiques qui impactent la résolution finale, tels la diffusion des électrons, le « fogging », la diffusion d'acide, la CMP etc… La solution choisie par l'industrie pour tenir compte de tous ces phénomènes est de les prévoir puis de les compenser. Cette correction nécessite de les prédire à l'aide de modélisation, la précision de ces modèles décrivant les procédés étant primordiale. Dans cette thèse, les concepts de base permettant de développer un modèle sont présentés. L'évaluation de la qualité des données, la méthodologie de choix d'un modèle ainsi que la validation de ce model sont introduites. De plus, les concepts d'analyse de sensibilité locale et globale seront définis. L'état de l'art des stratégies utilisées ou envisagées pour les procédés lithographiques actuels ou futurs sont énoncés, chacune des principales étapes lithographiques étant détaillée. Les modèles tenant compte de la physique et de la chimie impactant sur la résolution après écriture par e-beam sont étudiés. De plus, les modèles compacts permettant de prédire les résultats obtenus par e-beam seront détaillés, pour finalement décrire les limitations des stratégies actuelles. De nouveaux modèles compactes sont proposés en introduisant de nouvelles familles de fonctions telles que les fonctions Gamma ou les fonctions de Voigt. De plus, l'utilisation des fonctions d'interpolations de type Spline sont également proposés. Un modèle résine d'utilisation souple a également été développé pour tenir compte de la plupart des comportements expérimentaux observés en évaluant les dimensions de motifs d'un dessin en utilisant des métriques appropriés. Les résultats obtenus en utilisant de telles méthodes montrent une amélioration de la précision de la modélisation, notamment en ce qui concerne les motifs critiques. D'autres modèles spécifiques permettant de décrire les effets d'extrême longue portée ou permettant de compenser les déviations entre deux procédés sont également décrits dans ce travail. Le choix du jeu de motifs de calibration est critique pour permettre à l'algorithme de calibration d'obtenir des valeurs robustes des paramètres du modèle. Plusieurs stratégies utilisées dans la littérature sont brièvement décrites avant l'introduction d'une technique qui utilise l'analyse de sensibilité globale basée sur la variance afin de sélectionner les types de géométries optimales pour la calibration. Une stratégie permettant la sélection de ces motifs de calibration est détaillée. L'étude de l'impact du procédé et des incertitudes de mesures issue de la métrologie est également abordée, ce qui permet d'énoncer les limites à attendre du modèle sachant que les mesures peuvent être imprécises. Finalement, des techniques permettant de s'assurer de la qualité d'un modèle sont détaillées, telle l'utilisation de la validation croisée. La pertinence de ces techniques est démontrée pour quelques cas réel. / Since the development of the first integrated circuit, the number of components fabricated in a chip continued to grow while the dimensions of each component continued to be reduced. For each new technology node proposed, the fabrication process had to cope with the increasing complexity of its scaling down. The lithography step is one of the most critical for miniaturization due to the tightened requirements in both precision and accuracy of the pattern dimension printed into the wafer. Current mass production lithography technique is optical lithography. This technology is facing its resolution limits and the industry is looking for new approaches, such as Multi-patterning (MP), EUV lithography, Direct Write (DW), Nano-imprint or Direct Self-Assembly (DSA). Although these alternatives present significant differences among each other, they all present something in common: they rely on e-beam writers at some point of their flow. E-beam based lithography is subject to phenomena that impact resolution such as are electron scattering, fogging, acid diffusion, CMP loading, etc. The solution the industry adopted to address these effects is to predict and compensate for them. This correction requires predicting the effects, which is achieved through modeling. Hence the importance of developing accurate models for e-beam process. In this thesis, the basic concepts involving modeling are presented. Topics such as data quality, model selection and model validation are introduced as tools for modeling of e-beam lithography. Moreover, the concepts of local and global sensitivity analysis were also presented. Different strategies of global sensitivity analysis were presented and discussed as well as one of the main aspects in its evaluation, which is the space sampling approach. State-of-the-art strategies for todays and future lithography processes were presented and each of their main steps were described. First Principle models that explain the physics and chemistry of the most influential steps in the process resolution were also discussed. Moreover, general Compact models for predicting the results from e-beam lithography were also presented. Finally, some of the limitations of the current approach were described. New compact models described as Point-Spread-Function (PSF) are proposed based on new distributions, such as Gamma and Voigt. Besides, a technique using Splines for describing a PSF is also proposed. Moreover, a flexible resist model able to integrate most of the observed behavior was also proposed, based on evaluating any pattern on the layout using metrics. Results using such method further improved the any of the PSF distribution approach on the critical features that were limiting the future technology nodes. Other specific models and strategies for describing and compensating for extreme-long-range effects and for matching two different fabrication processes are also proposed and described in this work. The calibration layout is a key factor for providing the calibration algorithm with the experimental data necessary to determine the values of each of the parameters of the model. Several strategies from the literature were briefly described before introducing one of the main propositions of this thesis, which is employing variance-based global sensitivity analysis to determine which patterns are more suitable to be used for calibration. A complete flow for selecting patterns for a calibration layout was presented. A study regarding the impact of process and metrology variability over the calibration result was presented, indicating the limits one may expect from the generated model according to the quality of the data used. Finally, techniques for assuring the quality of a model such as cross-validation were also presented and demonstrated in some real-life situations.