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Having lived in apartments in densely populated cities most of my life, I felt this stark difference between my experiences in India and residing in the United States for the last several years. The silence, hiding neighbors, smiles consumed by KN 95 respirators, deserted ground plane, long narrow corridors, disconnection from the rest of the city, all this prevented me from seeing a home in the apartment I had rented in the United States. Philosopher Lars Svendsen's analysis and understanding of this feeling of perceived disconnection has made me to give it a name – Loneliness. One may reasonably hold the global pandemic accountable for this feeling. It can be true; the pandemic has forced a lot of us to spend all of our time at home, and be socially distant from other human beings. But surveys and studies suggest that the pandemic has only accelerated this feeling and is not the only causal factor. This thesis explores the widespread feeling of loneliness and how it relates to the design of physical space. As we continue to spend a lot of time at home, I have chosen to rethink the conception of a multifamily residential complex keeping in mind the opportunities architecture can create for people to redefine the space they occupy, connect with neighbors and retain the option of solitude as they choose. If there is something we think that we never have enough is time. We spend a lot of our time in cars commuting to and from work during the week and to the grocery store over the weekend. In a time when we are slowly moving towards normalcy, if normalcy still is physically going to places, I wanted to take into account some factors to help me identify a suitable site - access to public transportation, walkability, property prices, access to a grocery store, census data on demographics, household income, and car ownership. These factors are considered to motivate residents to interact with the street and provide flexibility for people of different age groups to live together. / Master of Architecture / This thesis explores the feeling of loneliness and how architecture can contribute towards creating better living spaces that can help overcome this feeling. Philosopher Lars Svendsen describes loneliness as "an emotional response to the fact that a person's need for connection to others is not satisfied"¹ My experience of living in apartment complexes for the past several years in India has got me thinking about what is preventing me from seeing a home in the apartment I live in the United States. The disconnection I experienced within the apartment, with neighbors, and the rest of the city has motivated me to investigate this invisible tie between the feeling of loneliness and the design of physical space. The United States census data and other studies over the years indicate a significant number of the US population living alone, increasing rates of divorce, childlessness, cultural detachment and smaller family size. These indicators exemplify social disconnection or isolation, a causal factor to this feeling of loneliness, as psychologist Julianne Holt-Lunstad suggests "has a significant and equivalent effect on risk of mortality, which exceeds the risk associated with obesity."² There are many factors that have contributed to this social isolation over the past several years, the most recent one being the global pandemic. As we continue to spend a lot of time at home, I have chosen to rethink the conception of a multifamily residential complex keeping in mind the opportunities architecture can create for people to feel a sense of belonging and community, connect with neighbors and retain the option of solitude as they choose. I have identified three different personas to help conceive the design of this residential complex. This method has helped me think about the organization of spaces within the unit, interaction with the public realm outside the building, and how this project ties to the rest of the city. The feeling of loneliness may be subjective but this thesis reinforces the fact that architecture can create opportunities to help overcome this feeling through self-reflection and social interaction.

Although the advance of social media has enabled people to build social connections much more easily than ever before, loneliness—an aversive feeling of being isolated and disconnected—persists in modern society. In this dissertation, I examine when, how, and why loneliness influences consumer behavior. First, I develop an experimental method to induce loneliness and identify a circumstance that experimenters can obtain a successful loneliness priming effect. Across three experiments, I demonstrate that the same loneliness primes produce different loneliness responses based on the availability of cognitive resources. Specifically, participants who are cognitively depleted tend to rely on responses evoked by the loneliness primes (showing the intended loneliness priming effect) while those with abundant cognitive resources are not affected by the loneliness primes. Building on the findings from Experiments 1-3, I investigate how loneliness affects consumer behaviors in two different marketing contexts, nostalgic product consumption and charitable giving by focusing on how consumers cope with loneliness through consumption. In Experiments 4-5, I demonstrate that consumers who lack cognitive resources tend to form positive attitudes toward nostalgic products when experiencing loneliness. In Experiments 6-7, I show that lonely consumers with limited cognitive resources are likely to donate money to a charitable organization. Additionally, I find that consumers can regulate feelings of loneliness by spending money either for themselves (i.e., nostalgic products) or for others (i.e., charitable giving). This dissertation contributes to our understanding of loneliness in marketing by identifying a circumstance in which such emotional distress significantly influences consumer behavior and by showing how consumers spend money to cope with loneliness. / Ph. D.

Syftet med studien var att undersöka ofrivillig ensamhet i den svenska befolkningen utifrån faktorer som tidigare har visat sig associerade med oönskad ensamhet, nämligen ålder, inkomst, civilstånd, kön, antal hushållsmedlemmar och även storleken på orten där personen bor. Upplevelsen av ensamhet före och under coronapandemin har också studerats. Totalt har 196 personer svarat på ett frågeformulär som mäter de tidigare nämnda faktorerna och ensamhet enligt UCLA-ensamhetsindex. Resultaten visar att ensamheten är störst bland den yngre populationen och bland dem med lägst inkomst. Resultaten påvisade även att storstadsbor upplever sig mindre ensamma än de som bor i mindre orter. Studien kunde inte visa att coronapandemin haft någon inverkan på ensamhetsupplevelsen. Det fanns ingen statistiskt signifikant skillnad i ensamhet utifrån kön, civilstånd eller antal medlemmar i hushållet. Slutsatsen som kan dras från studien är att inkomst, ålder och storleken på orten där individen bor har betydelse för ofrivillig ensamhet. / The purpose of the present study was to examine the involuntary loneliness in the Swedish population considering factors that previously have been shown to be associated, i.e. age, income, civil status, gender, number of household members and size of the locality where the individual lives. Even the experienced level of loneliness before and during the coronavirus pandemics has been studied. A total of 196 individuals have responded to a questionnaire aimed to measure the previously named factors as well as the loneliness index according to the UCLA Loneliness Scale. The results show that involuntary loneliness is more widespread among younger individuals and among those with lowest incomes. The results also show that people living in Sweden's largest localities feel less lonely than those living in smaller localities. The current study could not conclude that the coronavirus pandemic has had any effect on loneliness. No statistically significant differences in loneliness have been found when it comes to gender, civil status or number of members in the household. Overall, it can be concluded that income, age and the size of the locality where the individual lives are significant in the experience of involuntary loneliness.

The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic has had an enormous impact worldwide and is posing a threat to the physical and mental health of world citizens. The present study examines the extent to which a sample of Swedish university students have experienced loneliness during COVID-19. Furthermore, it also examines if there is a correlation between a high degree of loneliness and increased alcohol consumption. Participants consisted of Swedish university students recruited online using opportunity sampling (N=224). Loneliness was measured using the UCLA Loneliness Scale translated into Swedish. Results showed that the sample displayed higher levels of loneliness compared to normative scores but lower levels when compared to students elsewhere who have been quarantined. A logistic regression found no connection between high degrees of loneliness and increased alcohol consumption in the sample. The results and their implications are discussed. A pre-post measurement design and longitudinal studies are encouraged for future research to evaluate long term consequences of loneliness, along with an increased focus on ways to reduce loneliness. Finally, we suggest that loneliness should continue to be a priority in research in order to fully understand the psychological impact of COVID-19. / Utbrottet av COVID-19 pandemin har haft en enorm påverkan världen över och utgör ett hot mot den fysiska och mentala hälsan. Vår studie syftade till att undersöka i vilken utsträckning ett urval av svenska universitetsstudenter upplevt ensamhet under COVID-19. Vidare har studien undersökt om det fanns ett samband mellan en hög grad av upplevd ensamhet under COVID-19 och ökad alkoholkonsumtion. Deltagarna bestod av svenska universitetsstudenter vilka rekryterades online genom bekvämlighetsurval (N=224). Deltagarna fyllde i en enkät där subjektiv ensamhet mättes med hjälp av en översatt version av UCLA Loneliness Scale till svenska. Resultaten visade att studenterna i vårt urval uppvisade högre nivå av ensamhet jämfört med normvärden, men lägre jämfört med studenter i andra länder som suttit i karantän. En logistisk regression fann inget samband mellan upplevd ensamhet och ökad alkoholkonsumtion. Resultaten och deras implikationer diskuteras. För framtida forskning uppmuntras en för- och eftermätningsdesign samt longitudinella studier att utvärdera långsiktiga konsekvenser av ensamhet, samt ett ökat fokus på sätt att minska ensamhet. Slutligen föreslås att ensamhet blir ett fortsatt fokus i forskningen för att fullt ut förstå psykologiska effekterna av COVID-19.

Loneliness is increasingly understood as a significant physical and mental health concern in modern society. Yet studies of the subject typically characterise it as resulting entirely from subjective individual characteristics and circumstances. The impact of broader living environments is understudied, leaving disciplines such as urban planning with little guidance as to how environmental intervention strategies might best ameliorate loneliness. This paper uses Stockholm as a case study for asking two place-based questions: (1) what can our knowledge of loneliness risk factors tell us about the possible spatial distribution of loneliness in cities? (2) what influence does the built environment itself have on loneliness? An abductive approach is used to test different ways in which urban planners might map risk of loneliness and social isolation in different neighbourhoods. The results shed light on spatial segregation as a potential contributing factor, with implications for planning practice.

Bakgrund och problemformulering: Tidigare forskning visar att 32 procent av Sveriges befolkning bor ensamma och många utav dem är äldre personer. Det är inte bara äldre som bor ensamma som upplever ensamhet utan även de som bor på boenden och har personer runt sig. Studien kommer beskriva hur en ensam äldre person kan bemötas på bästa sätt samt hur upplevelsen av ensamheten påverkas om den är självvald eller påtvingad. Syfte: att beskriva äldres upplevelse av ensamhet. Metod: En litteraturstudie har gjorts enligt Axelssons modell (2012), där kvalitativa artiklar har analyserats och sammanställts till fyra teman: ensamhetsfaktorer, att bli gammal, ensamhetens konsekvenser och att hantera ensamhet. Artiklarnas inklusionskriterier var att de handlade om personer äldre än 65 år. Artiklarna skulle inte vara äldre än sex år och bygga på kvalitativa studier. Resultat: Upplevelsen av ensamhet kan uppstå på olika sätt, den blir mest påtaglig vid förlusten av en partner. Att gå i pension har en betydande roll och kan orsaka att en persons livsrytm rubbas, ensamheten kan även uppstå när kroppen inte fungerar som den gjort innan. Ensamheten är något som varje individ upplever olika och därmed kan den uppfattas som både positiv och negativ. Det framkommer att sociala relationer har en positiv inverkan på ensamheten. Diskussion: Forskning har visat att åldern inte har en betydelse för upplevelsen av ensamhet. Upplevelsen bland yngre människor är relativt lika som hos äldre. Likaså verkar upplevelsen i olika delar av världen vara densamma. Genom vårdande samtal samt uppmuntran att aktivera sig kan ensamheten förhindras.

This investigation was concerned with the relationship between loneliness and disability in individuals with back and spinal cord injury. Specifically, the purpose of this study was to answer the following questions: (1) Do disabled individuals report a greater degree of loneliness than an able-bodied control group? (2) Does loneliness relate to the level of expressed need for inclusion and affection? (3) Does locus of control relate to the degree of loneliness reported by individuals with disability? (4) Does the employment status or living arrangement of disabled individuals relate to the degree of reported loneliness? (5) Does the short form of the Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale provide a reliable estimate of the full-scale form in the measurement of loneliness in disabled individuals? The population for this study consisted of thirty spinal-injured paraplegics, thirty back-injured patients, and fifty able-bodied control subjects. The criterion instruments employed in this study were the Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale, the Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation-Behavior, and the Rotter Internal-External Locus of Control Scale. Survey packets were mailed to the spinal-injury and back-injury subjects. Able-bodied controls were administered the same packet in a group-classroom setting. The data was analyzed by Pearson Product-Moment correlation, point bi-serial correlation, One Way Analysis of Variance, and Student t-test. The significance level for this investigation was set at .05. Based on the results of the statistical analyses, the following conclusions were drawn: (1) Paraplegics did not significantly differ from back-injured patients, or an able-bodied control group, on the measure of Loneliness. (2) A significant correlation (negative) was found between loneliness and the expressed need for inclusion and affection in the spinal-injured group. (3) A significant relationships between loneliness and employment status or living arrangement was not found. (4) Spinal-injured paraplegics rated as externals on the locus of control measure were significantly higher than those subjects rated as having an internal locus of control on the measure of loneliness. (5) The short-form of the Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale was significantly, (positively), correlated with the full-form in all subject groups.

Internet use is a growing trend in today’s society, and there are many variables surrounding use that can potentially affect individuals’ psychological well-being. The purpose of this study is to discover if the motivation for Internet use has a direct effect on individuals experiencing social isolation. An Explanatory Design was utilized for this study, and participants were comprised of 47 adult males and females. Quantitative data was collected for this study through use of online surveys, such as Internet use (observed motivation and frequency) survey, JongGierveld Loneliness Scale (explored emotional and social loneliness) and The Big 5 Personality Inventory (viewed personality traits). A significant finding of this study was that there was a positive relationship between individuals who are highly agreeable and the frequency of their Internet use. This study was unable to produce conclusive data on how motivation for Internet use influences episodes of social isolation. The results of this study do demonstrate the wide use of the Internet by adults, and reinforce the importance of incorporating this use in assessment and treatment of clients. Information obtained from this study also has potential to stimulate means of advocacy for protective Internet policies and formation of educational programs designed to highlight best practices for Internet use.

Loneliness is a risk factor for premature mortality but the mechanics of this relationship remain obscure. A potential mechanism is sleep disturbance. The present study aimed to examine the association between loneliness and sleep disturbance, evaluate loneliness as a risk factor for sleep disturbance and vice-versa, model effects between loneliness and sleep disturbance over time, and evaluate a mediation model of loneliness, sleep disturbance, and health. Data came from the 2006-2012 waves of the Health and Retirement Study, a nationally-representative study of older Americans; participants > 65 were included (n=11,400). Analyses included (i) linear regressions accounting for complex sampling and (ii) path analysis (cross-lagged panel and mediation models). Loneliness and sleep disturbance were correlated and were risk factors for one another. Cross-lagged panel models showed reciprocal effects between loneliness and sleep disturbance. Cross-lagged mediation models showed that loneliness predicted subsequent sleep disturbance, which in turn predicted poor self-reported health. Moreover, there was evidence of a direct and indirect effect of loneliness on sleep disturbance. All associations were weakened— but remained—when accounting for demographics, isolation, and depression. Collectively, these findings are consistent with the theory that sleep disturbance is a mechanism through which loneliness damages health. However, effects between loneliness and sleep are reciprocal, rather than unidirectional. Moreover, longitudinal effects were very small. Further research is necessary to speak to causality, assess daily associations between loneliness and sleep, assess a comprehensive model of the mechanics of loneliness and health, and examine loneliness and sleep in the context of other factors.