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[pt] O sulfato de magnésio se caracteriza como um possível co-produto de alguns processos hidrometalúrgicos envolvendo concentrados minerais portadores desse metal quando submetidos à lixiviação envolvendo ácido sulfúrico. Dentro do contexto dos fluxogramas de processamento desses concentrados, uma etapa bastante comum é a neutralização da solução, usualmente levada a efeito por meio da solubilização de óxido de cálcio. Este, por sua vez, pode ser substituído por óxido de magnésio desde que determinadas propriedades, tais como superfície de contato e reatividade, estejam adequadas aos requisitos desta etapa. Desta forma, o processo de decomposição térmica do sulfato de magnésio, aparentemente, não se configura como uma possível rota de processamento visto que ocorre numa temperatura de aproximadamente 1100 graus Celsius, significativamente alta para a formação de um óxido de magnésio que atenda às condições necessárias para uma neutralização eficiente. O estudo termodinâmico realizado sugere que na presença de agentes redutores como o carbono, ocorre uma diminuição na temperatura, para aproximadamente 400 graus Celsius, a partir da qual a transformação do sulfato em óxido de magnésio é teoricamente viável. Assim sendo, os objetivos do trabalho de pesquisa estão associados com a avaliação do comportamento do sistema reacional constituído por MgSO4 quando na presença de carbono oriundo de carvão vegetal. O estudo contempla também a caracterização dos materiais obtidos a fim de verificar a obtenção do MgO e avaliar se as propriedades do material encontram-se adequadas para a sua utilização como agente regulador de pH tal como o CaO. Desta forma, além das técnicas de microscopia eletrônica de varredura e difração de Raios-X, também é prevista a quantificação da reatividade do produto em soluções ácidas. As análises realizadas com as variáveis, excesso de agente redutor, temperatura, vazão de arraste e homogeneidade da amostra, mostraram que a temperatura é a variável que mais influência a decomposição do MgSO4. Entre todos os ensaios analisados, os experimentos a 900 graus Celsius e com tempos de 25 e 30 minutos foram os que indicaram os melhores resultados experimentais de conversão, atingindo uma conversão próxima de 100 por cento. As análises de caracterização, em DR-X e MEV/EDS, indicaram que o MgO foi formado ao fim da reação. O teste de reatividade indicou que o MgO obtido pode ser utilizado como regulador de pH, atendendo a proposta do trabalho. / [en] Magnesium sulfate is characterized as a possible co-product of some Hydrometallurgical Processes involving mineral concentrates that has this metal when subjected to leaching involving sulfuric acid. In the context of the processes flowchart, a fairly common step is the neutralization of the solution that usually takes effect through the solubility of calcium oxide. This, in turn, can be substituted for magnesium oxide as long as these properties, such as contact surface and reactivity, are suitable for the requirements of this step. Thus, the thermal decomposition process of magnesium sulfate, apparently, it is not configured as a possible processing route because it occurs at a temperature of approximately 1100 Celsius degrees, significantly elevated for the formation of a magnesium oxide which satisfies the conditions necessary for a neutralization efficient. The thermodynamic study suggests that in the presence of reducing agents such as carbon, a decrease in the temperature occurs to approximately 400 Celsius degrees, where the conversion of sulfate to magnesium oxide is theoretically viable. Thus, the objectives of the research work are associated with an evaluation of the behavior of the reactive system constituted by MgSO4 when in the presence of carbon provided from the charcoal. The study also contemplates the characterization of the materials obtained in order to verify the attainment of MgO and to evaluate how the properties of the material are suitable for their use as a pH regulating agent such as CaO. Thus, in addition to the techniques of scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction, it is also expected the quantification of the reactivity of the product in acidic solutions. The analyzes performed with the variables, excess of reducing agent, temperature, drag flow and homogeneity of the sample, showed that temperature is the variable that most influences the decomposition of MgSO4. Among all the analyzed tests, the experiments at 900 Celsius degrees and with 25 and 30 minute were that indicated the best experimental results of conversion, reaching a conversion close to 100 percent. The characterization analyzes, in DR-X and MEV/EDS, indicated that MgO was formed at the end of the reaction. The reactivity test indicated that the obtained MgO can be used as pH regulator, attending the work proposal.

Submitted by Ana Hilda Fonseca (anahilda@ufba.br) on 2014-09-17T15:34:46Z No. of bitstreams: 1 _ TESE_ - Soraia Jesus de Oliveira - Versão Final com ficha catalográfica OK.pdf: 3092511 bytes, checksum: 4de5ad2f3ebfbeb60d029db00c51c206 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Fatima Cleômenis Botelho Maria (botelho@ufba.br) on 2014-09-19T12:43:31Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 _ TESE_ - Soraia Jesus de Oliveira - Versão Final com ficha catalográfica OK.pdf: 3092511 bytes, checksum: 4de5ad2f3ebfbeb60d029db00c51c206 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2014-09-19T12:43:31Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 _ TESE_ - Soraia Jesus de Oliveira - Versão Final com ficha catalográfica OK.pdf: 3092511 bytes, checksum: 4de5ad2f3ebfbeb60d029db00c51c206 (MD5) / FAPESB / A desidrogenação catalítica do etilbenzeno em presença de vapor d´água é, sem dúvida, a principal via de produção de estireno, um produto de alto valor comercial, amplamente utilizado na manufatura de borrachas e vários polímeros. Os catalisadores típicos comerciais são baseados em hematita (-Fe2O3) contendo óxido de cromo e óxido de potássio, que atuam como promotor textural e estrutural, respectivamente. Estes sistemas possuem diversas vantagens, tais como baixo custo e elevada resistência a venenos, mas apresentam algumas desvantagens, tais como a perda de potássio durante a reação, provocando a desativação do catalisador e a toxicidade do óxido de cromo. Visando a superar esses problemas, neste trabalho, foram preparados catalisadores de hematita dopada com magnésio, que foram avaliados na desidrogenação de etilbenzeno, a fim de obter sistemas isentos de cromo e de potássio para essa reação. Os catalisadores (Mg/Fe (molar)= 0; 0,01; 0,03; 0,06; 0,09 e 0,10) foram preparados por hidrólise simultânea de nitrato de ferro e de nitrato de magnésio, com hidróxido de amônio à temperatura ambiente, seguido de aquecimento a 600 °C. Os catalisadores foram caracterizados por análise química, espectroscopia no infravermelho com transformada de Fourier, difração de raios X, espectroscopia Mössbauer, medidas de área superficial específica, redução à temperatura programada e espectroscopia fotoeletrônica de raios X. Nas amostras com baixos teores de magnésio (Mg/Fe= 0,01 e 0,03) foram obtidos magnésia e cristais de hematita de 69 e 63 nm, respectivamente, enquanto na amostra com Mg/Fe= 0,06 foram produzidos cristais de hematita de 124 nm, co- existindo com ferrita de magnésio. Por outro lado, nas amostras mais ricas em magnésio (Mg/Fe= 0,09 e 0,1) foram obtidos cristais de hematita de 57 e 61 nm, respectivamente, co-existindo com magnésia e ferrita de magnésio. A adição de magnésio a catalisadores de hematita alterou a área superficial específica dos sólidos; a magnésia atua como um espaçador na produção de pequenos cristais de hematita. O magnésio também diminuiu a temperatura de redução da hematita mas não se observou uma tendência regular com o seu conteúdo. Em todos os catalisadores, o magnésio tende a depositar-se na superfície e este efeito aumenta com o seu teor, gerando superfícies sólidas parcialmente cobertas com magnésia e/ou ferrita de magnésio. Todos os catalisadores dopados com magnésio foram mais ativos que a hematita na desidrogenação de etilbenzeno, em presença de vapor d´água e seletiva ao estireno. A atividade e a seletividade da hematita variaram de forma irregular com o teor de magnésio, um fato que pode ser relacionado com as diferentes fases nos sólidos. Foi proposto que a magnésia atua como promotor textural, levando à produção de pequenos cristais de hematita, que são cataliticamente mais ativos, enquanto a ferrita de magnésio aumenta a atividade dos sítios de ferro devido às interações eletrônicas na estrutura do espinélio. A combinação destes efeitos conduz à formação do catalisador mais ativo (Mg/Fe= 0,9), consistindo de hematita parcialmente coberta por magnésia e ferrita de magnésio. Ele tem a vantagem de não ser tóxico, sendo promissor para aplicações comerciais. Além disso, o catalisador com o mais baixo teor de magnésio (Mg/Fe= 0,1), consistindo de hematita parcialmente coberta por magnésia, também é atrativo para aplicações comerciais, devido à sua elevada selectividade (quase 100%), o que pode evitar a reciclagem do etilbenzeno e as operações de separação, levando a uma redução nos custos operacionais / Catalytic ethylbenzene dehydrogenation in the presence of steam is by far the main route for the production of styrene, a high value chemical, widely used in the manufacture of several rubbers and polymers. The typical commercial catalysts are based on hematite (-Fe2O3) containing chromium oxide and potassium oxide which act as textural and structural promoter, respectively. These systems have several advantages such as low cost and high resistance to poisons but have some disadvantages such as potassium loss during reaction, leading to the catalyst deactivation and the toxicity of chromium oxide. In order to overcome these drawbacks, magnesium-doped hematite catalysts were prepared and evaluated in ethylbenzene dehydrogenation in this work, aiming to get chromium and potassium- free catalysts for the reaction. The catalysts (Mg/Fe (molar)= 0; 0.01, 0.03, 0.06, 0.09 and 0.10) were prepared by simultaneous hydrolysis of iron nitrate and magnesium nitrate with ammonium hydroxide at room temperature, followed by heating at 600 °C. The catalysts were characterized by chemical analysis, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, Mössbauer spectroscopy, specific surface area measurements, temperature programmed reduction and X-ray photoelectronic spectroscopy. For the poorest-magnesium samples (Mg/Fe = 0.01 and 0.03) both magnesia and hematite crystals of 69 and 63 nm, respectively, were found while for the sample with Mg/Fe= 0.06 hematite crystals of around 124 nm were produced, coexisting with magnesium ferrite. Conversely, for the richest-magnesium samples (Mg/Fe = 0.09 and 0.1) hematite crystals of 57 and 61 nm, respectively, were found co-existing with magnesia and magnesium ferrite. The addition of magnesium to hematite-based catalysts changes the specific surface area of the solids, magnesia acts as a spacer to produce small crystals of hematite. Magnesium also decreases the reduction temperature of hematite but no regular tendency with its content was found. For all catalysts, magnesium tends to deposit on the surface, this effect increases with its amount, generating solid surfaces partially coated with magnesia and/or magnesium ferrite. All magnesium-doped catalysts were more active than pure hematite in ethylbenzene dehydrogenation in the presence of steam and selective to styrene. The activity and selectivity of hematite vary irregularly with magnesium content, a fact that can be related to the different phases in the solids. It was proposed that magnesia acts as textural promoter, leading to production of small crystals of hematite, which are catalytically more active while magnesium ferrite increases the activity of iron sites due to electronic interactions in the spinel structure. The combination of these effects leads to the most active catalyst (Mg/Fe = 0.9), consisting of hematite partially covered by magnesia and magnesium ferrite. It has the advantage of not being toxic and then is promising for commercial applications. In addition, the magnesium-poorest catalyst (Mg/Fe = 0.1), consisting of hematite partially covered by magnesia, is also attractive for commercial application due to its high selectivity (almost 100%), which could prevent ethylbenzene recycle and separation operations, leading to a reduction in operating costs.

Orientador: Renato Sprung / Tese doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Quimica / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-06T18:06:45Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Villanueva_SandraBizarriaLopes_D.pdf: 2768871 bytes, checksum: ec40bbcbf8152a8c34f6d7fdd395af83 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2005 / Resumo: Materiais do tipo hidrotalcita foram sintetizados, calcinados e caracterizados, assim como utilizados na conversão catalítica de etanol. As sínteses foram realizadas com razões molares AI/(AI + Mg) iguais a 0,20; 0,25 e 0,33; em todos os casos os difratogramas de raios-X demonstraram que, efetivamente, fases de hidrotalcitas tinham sido obtidas. Esses materiais apresentaram áreas superficiais BET de cerca de 50 a 70 m2.g-l, à exceção da hidrotalcita sintetizada com agentes precipitantes contendo amônio, em que a área superficial foi de cerca de 7 m2g -I. A quimissorção de CO2 desses materiais revelou que hidrota1citas calcinadas são sólidos básicos e tal basicidade relaciona-se com o teor de magnésio substituído e também com a temperatura de ca1cinação. Os testes catalíticos foram realizados a temperaturas de 3000 C a 4000 C e verificou-se o aumento da taxa de reação com o incremento da temperatura. Os produtos de condensação éter etílico e nbutanol foram obtidos em maior proporção. Hidrotalcitas da série sódio apresentaram maior rendimento de n-butanol independentemente do teor de alumínio presente na amostra. Todas as amostras utilizadas apresentaram, a baixas conversões, quantidades significativas de n-butanol, o que pode indicar que, além da via de condensação aldólica, a formação desse produto também ocorre via condensação direta do etanol, ou seja, sem a dessorção para a fase gasosa da molécula de acetaldeído. Testes catalíticos comparativos realizados com óxido de magnésio e alumínio resultaram principalmente em acetaldeído e etileno, respectivamente. Traços de n-butanol foram identificados no óxido de magnésio quando testado a 4000 C, e éter etílico foi observado em maior quantidade no óxido de alumínio quando testado a 3000 C / Abstract: Hydrotalcites-like materiaIs were prepared, calcined and characterized as well as used in the catalytic reaction of ethanol. The synthesis were perfonned with AI/(AI + Mg) ratios of 0.20; 0.25 and 0.33; in all cases the x-ray showed hydrotalcites phases. These materiaIs resulted in BET areas of 50 at 70 m2.g-1, except for the hydrotalcite synthesized with NH3, that resulted in a BET area 00 m2g-1. The CO2 chemisorption on these materiaIs revealed that calcined hydrotalcites are basic catalysts and their basicity was related to the quantity of substituted magnesium and to the calcination temperature. The catalytic reactions were performed at 300, 350 and 4000 C; the reaction rate increasing with reaction temperature. The main reaction products identified were ether and n-butanol. The hydrotalcite synthesized with cation sodium presented the highest yield of n-butanoI independent of aluminum content present in the samples. The results of Iow conversions showed significant yield of n-butanoI, and this could indicate that the formation of that product occurs by aldoI condensation and aIso by straight condensation of ethanoI molecule, without acetaldehyde desorption to gas fase. Comparative catalytic tests performed with MgO and AI203 showed acetaldehyde and ethylene predominantly as reaction products. Traces of n-butanoI were identified with MgO when the reaction occurred at 4000 C, and ether was identified with AI203 when the reaction occurred at 3000 C / Doutorado / Desenvolvimento de Processos Químicos / Doutor em Engenharia Química

The thesis deals with the study of magnesium oxide burned by various burning regimes and his possibilities of its usage as potential expansion additive. The theoretical part of the thesis concerns mainly the volume changes and how they can be influenced. The practical part focuses on monitoring morphology, phase composition and the hydration process of magnesium oxide.

[pt] Em processos de lixiviação sulfúrica de concentrados minerais contendo magnésio, é comum que este metal permaneça em solução após as etapas de neutralização e precipitação seletiva de impurezas. Sob a perspectiva de integração mássica desse material, é possível utilizar o MgSO4.7H2O obtido como um precursor na formação de MgO que, por sua vez, pode ser empregado nas etapas de neutralização dos fluxogramas de processo em substituição aos insumos tradicionalmente empregados e adquiridos pela indústria. Desta forma, os processos de decomposição redutora se apresentam como uma alternativa para a redução da temperatura de processamento do MgSO4.7H2O, incorporando aos produtos um melhor desempenho quanto à reatividade. Dentro desse contexto, o presente trabalho tem como objetivo apreciar o processo de decomposição redutora deste sal na presença de hidrogênio, entender o comportamento do sistema reacional e caracterizar os produtos reacionais, via MEV/EDS, ICP/OES e FTIR. O estudo termodinâmico através do software Medusa confirmou a alta solubilidade entre o sulfato e o magnésio e o software HSC certificou que a presença de um agente redutor é significante, pois há uma diminuição considerável de temperatura do processo. Já o estudo experimental da decomposição em atmosfera redutora indica que é possível transformar o referido sulfato no óxido de interesse em temperaturas abaixo de 800 graus Celsius o que, por sua vez, caracteriza-se como uma redução de pelo menos 400 graus Celsius quando comparado com o mesmo processo em atmosfera não redutora. A reatividade do produto final foi classificada como adequada, de acordo com a metodologia proposta, atingindo a faixa de pH básico dentro do intervalo de tempo apropriado (abaixo de 120 s). Com isso, o estudo indica que o referido processo unitário pode se configurar, de fato, como uma alternativa para a diminuição da temperatura de decomposição do MgSO4.7H2O. / [en] In sulfuric leaching processes of mineral concentrates containing magnesium, it is common for this metal to remain in solution after the steps of neutralization and selective precipitation of impurities. Removing the liquors can easily be achieved by crystallization of the sulfate in the heptahydrate form. From the perspective of the mass integration of this material, it is possible to use the MgSO4.7H2O obtained as an intermediate in MgO formation which, in return, can be used in the neutralization steps of the process flowcharts instead of the inputs traditionally used and acquired by the industry. To this end, the resulting oxide must have a high surface area and, consequently, a high acid reactivity. Considering the simple decomposition of the magnesium salt, the temperature which this reaction occurs is high so that such properties are incorporated into the product. In this way, the reductive decomposition processes are presented as an alternative for the reduction of the processing temperature of the MgSO4.7H2O, incorporating a better performance in the reactivity to the products. In this context, the present work aims to evaluate the process of reductive decomposition of this salt in the presence of hydrogen, to understand the behavior of the reaction system and to characterize the reaction products, via MEV/EDS, ICP/OES and FTIR. The experimental study of the decomposition in reducing atmosphere indicates that it is possible to transform said sulfate into the oxide of interest at temperatures below 800 Celsius degrees which, in return, is characterized as a reduction of at least 400 Celsius degrees when compared to the same process in a non-reducing atmosphere. The reactivity of the final product was classified as adequate, according to the proposed methodology, reaching the basic pH range within the appropriate time interval (below 120s). Thus, the study indicates that the said unitary process can in fact be configured as an alternative for the decrease in the decomposition temperature of MgSO4.7H2O.

A versatilidade das espumas poliuretanas permite sua aplicação em inúmeros setores industriais, devido à possibilidade de se obter diferentes conjuntos de propriedades apenas alterando sua formulação básica. Um tipo recorrente de alteração é a incorporação de diferentes tipos de fibras em matrizes de poliuretano, vastamente estudada com o objetivo de gerar materiais compósitos com melhores propriedades mecânicas do que a matriz original. Inúmeros autores reportaram a utilização de celulose cristalina como uma alternativa renovável aos agentes de reforço e revelaram que a celulose utilizada como aditivo em matrizes poliméricas afetou as propriedades mecânicas da matriz original e, em menor escala, exerceu influência sobre a estabilidade térmica do compósito. O presente trabalho dedicou-se a isolar a celulose cristalina contida nas fibras de bananeira mediante tratamento com ácido acético concentrado. Os tratamentos químicos são necessários para modificar a superfície do material e melhorar a adesão do agente de reforço à matriz. Tendo em vista os resultados associados à estabilidade térmica dos compósitos de poliuretano reforçados com celulose, buscou-se sintetizar materiais híbridos de celulose e MgO.nH2O. Foi observado que, mesmo em pequenas quantidades, a presença do óxido hidratado de magnésio afetou significativamente a estabilidade térmica do HB 98:2. Estudos térmicos indicam que os materiais compósitos estudados apresentaram comportamento semelhante ao da matriz PU. Estudos das propriedades compressivas dos materiais poliméricos gerados mostraram que a incorporação do HB 98:2 ao PU afetou positivamente as propriedades mecânicas do material, sendo que o compósito PU + 1 HB 98:2 apresentou desempenho mecânico superior ao da matriz pura. / The versatility of polyurethanes foams allows its application in numerous industries because of the possibility of obtaining different sets of properties just by changing its basic formulation. A recurrent type of modification is the incorporation of different types of fibers in polyurethane matrices widely studied with the objective of generating composite materials with better mechanical properties than the original matrix. Numerous authors have reported the use of crystalline cellulose as a renewable alternative to fillers and showed that the cellulose used as additive in polymer matrices affect the mechanical properties of the original matrix and, to a lesser extent, influence upon thermal stability of the composite. This work was dedicated to isolate the crystalline cellulose contained in banana fibers by treatment with concentrated acetic acid. The chemical treatments are needed to modify the surface of the material and improve adhesion of the filler to the matrix. In view of the results associated with the thermal stability of the composite polyurethane reinforced with cellulose, sought to synthesize hybrid materials cellulose and MgO.nH2O. It has been observed that even in small quantities, the presence of hydrated magnesium oxide significantly affect the thermal stability of HB 98: 2. thermal studies indicate that the studied composites showed similar behavior to the PU matrix. Studies of the compressive properties of polymeric materials generated showed that the incorporation of HB 98: 2 to PU positively affect the mechanical properties of the material, and the composite PU + HB 98 1: 2 had mechanical performance superior to that of pure matrix.

<p>The development and improvement of the functionality of metal oxides in heterogeneous catalysis and other surface chemical processes can greatly benefit from an atomic-level understanding of the surface chemistry. Atomistic calculations such as quantum mechanical (QM) calculations and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations can provide highly detailed information about the atomic and electronic structure, and constitute valuable complements to experimental surface science techniques. </p><p>In this thesis, an embedded-cluster approach for quantum mechanical calculations has been developed to model the surface chemistry of metal oxides. In particular, CO adsorption on the MgO(001) and CeO₂(110) surfaces as well as O vacancy formation at the CeO₂(110) surface have been investigated. The cluster model has been thoroughly tested by comparison with electronic structure calculations for the periodic slab model.</p><p>The chemical implications of distorted surface structures arising from the surface dynamics have been investigated by combining the QM embedded-cluster calculations with force-field based MD simulations. Here QM embedded-cluster calculations were performed using surface structures sampled from the MD simulations.</p><p>This combined MD+QM embedded-cluster procedure was applied to the CO adsorption on MgO(001) at 50 K and the O vacancy formation on CeO₂(110) at 300 K. Significant thermal variations of the CO adsorption energy and the O vacancy formation energy were observed. It was found that these variations could be estimated using the force field of the MD simulation as an interaction model. With this approach, the QM results were extrapolated to higher temperature and doped systems.</p>

Groundwater is a major and sometimes lone source of drinking water worldwide. The chemical composition of groundwater is a combined product of the composition of water that enters the aquifer and its reaction with various minerals present in the soil and rock mass, which alter the water composition with time and space. Some important factors influencing groundwater quality are (1) physiochemical characteristics o the rocks through which the water circulates; (2) geology of the location; (3) climate of the area; (4) role of microorganisms, which includes oxidative and reductive biodegradation of organic matter; (5)chemical, physical, and mineralogical characteristics of the overburden soils through which the rainwater percolates; and (6) human intrusion affecting the hydrological cycle and degradation in water quality through utilization of water for agricultural and industrial activities. By far the most serious naturally occurring groundwater-quality problem in India derives from high fluoride, arsenic and iron concentrations which are dissolved from the bedrocks by geochemical processes. Presence of excess fluoride in groundwater is identified as a naturally occurring health hazard by the World Health Organization (WHO). Prolonged ingestion of fluoride beyond certain permissible limit leads to ffluorosis, one of the common water-related diseases recognized by the WHO and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). Endemic fluorosis is now known to be global in scope, occurring on all continents and affecting many millions of people. According to estimates made in the early 1980s, around 260 million people in 30 countries worldwide were drinking water with more than 1 ppm of fluoride. The ultimate source of fluoride in water, soil or biosphere is associated with its distribution in rocks and its dispersion in groundwater. The three most important minerals of fluoride are fluorite (CaF2), cryolite (Na3AlF6) and fluorapatite (Ca5(PO4)3F); cryolite is a rare mineral where as by far the largest amount of fluorine in the earth's crust is in the form of fluorapatite (about 3.5% by weight of fluorine) which is processed almost exclusively for its phosphate content. Fluoride substitutes readily in hydroxyl positions in late-formed minerals in igneous rocks, and in primary minerals especially micas (such as biotites) and amphiboles (such as hornblende). The most important controlling factors influencing fluoride presence in groundwater include: distribution of easily weathered fluoride-bearing minerals, the accessibility of circulating water to these minerals, pH of the percolating water, calcium content of the leaching water, temperature of the percolating water and the soil, exchangeable ions in the percolating water, extent of fresh water exchange in an aquifer, evaporation and evapotranspiration, complexing of fluoride ions with other ions, presence of CO2 and other chemicals in draining water and residence time of the percolating water in soil. High fluoride levels are observed in the groundwater in 19 states of the country. Fluorite, apatite, rock phosphate, phosphorites, phosphatic nodules and topaz are major fluoride bearing minerals in India with varying levels of fluoride content. There are three major fluoride bearing areas in India :1) Gujarat-Rajasthan in the north-west and 2) Chandidongri-Raipur in central India 3) Tamil Nadu-Andhra Pradesh in the south; besides other areas in Karnataka, Bihar, Punjab and in the North-west Himalayas. The total mineral reserves of fluorite, rock phosphate and apatite in the country are estimated at 11.6, 71 and 2.82 million tonnes respectively. The distribution of areas with excess fluoride in groundwater concurs with that of fluorine-bearing minerals. Further high fluoride concentrations are observed from arid and semi arid regions of the country and the areas with advanced stage of groundwater development. An estimated 62 million people, including 6 million children suffer from fluorosis in India because of consuming fluoride-contaminated water. Endemic fluorosis is found to practically exist only in the villages due to lack of piped water supply. The Indian Drinking Water Standard specifies the desirable and permissible limits for fluoride in drinking water as 1.0 and 1.5ppm respectively. De-fluoridation of groundwater is the only alternative to prevent fluorosis in the absence of alternate water source especially for immediate and/or interim relief. De-fluoridation of drinking water in India is usually achieved by the Nalgonda technique or activated alumina process. The Nalgonda method involves addition of aluminum salts (aluminium sulphate and/or aluminium chloride), lime and bleaching powder to water, followed by rapid mixing, flocculation, sedimentation, filtration and disinfection. Only aluminum salt is responsible for removal of fluoride from water .Fluoride removal is achieved in a combination of complexation with polyhydroxy aluminium species and adsorption on polymeric alumino hydroxides (floc). Activated alumina(Al2O3) was proposed for de-fluoridation of water for domestic use in 1930’s and since then it has become one of the most advocated de-fluoridation methods. Activated alumina is a semi crystalline porous inorganic adsorbent and an excellent medium for fluoride removal. When the source water passes through the packed column of activated alumina, fluoride (and other components in the water) is removed via exchange reaction with surface hydroxides on alumina; this mechanism is generally called adsorption although ligand exchange is a more appropriate term for the highly specific surface reactions involved. The fluoride removal capacity of alumina is highly sensitive to pH, the optimum being about pH5.5-6. Significant reduction in fluoride removal by activated alumina is also observed in presence of sulfate and silicate ions. The column needs periodic regeneration once break point(where the effluent concentration is, for example, 2ppm at normal saturation) is reached. For regeneration, the medium is backwashed for 5-10 min and then subjected to two step regeneration with base (NaOH) followed by acid(H2SO4). A major cause for concern with the Nalgonda method is the possibility of formation of residual aluminum and soluble aluminum fluoride complexes in the treated water and a potential breach of the 0.2ppm Indian drinking water standard for aluminium. Concerns with the activated alumina filter method are that the process is pH dependent, with an optimum (pH) working range of 5-6. Further, the activated alumina column requires periodic recharge using caustic soda and acid solutions to rejuvenate the fluoride retention capacity of the column. After 3-4 regenerations the medium has to be replaced. If the pH is not readjusted to normal following the regeneration process, there is a possibility that the aluminum concentration in the treated water may exceed the 0.2ppm standard. Due to the aforementioned drawbacks of the currentde-fluoridation technologies in India that chiefly rely on aluminum based compounds, magnesia(magnesium oxide, MgO) is selected to develop an alternate sustainable de-fluoridation method. The potential of MgO for de-fluoridation has been examined owing to its very limited solubility(6.2mg/L), non-toxicity and excellent fluoride retention capacity. A review of the previous studies on fluoride removal using MgO reveals that the relevant information is essentially scattered. Though studies demonstrated the fluoride removing ability of MgO and brought into focus certain aspects of the fluoride removal mechanism and change in water quality upon MgO addition, vital issues necessary for efficient design and successful field implementation of the de-fluoridation processusing MgO were not addressed. The significant limitations in the earlier works include: influence of process variables(such as MgO dosage, initial fluoride concentration, contact time, temperature, initial solution pH, presence of co-ions and ionic strength) on fluoride retention characteristics (such as removal rate, equilibrium time, capacity) of MgO were not systematically determined, optimum operating parameters/conditions (such as MgO dosage, stirring and settling time) for effective de-fluoridation process applicable to a wide range of groundwater chemical composition and fluoride concentrations were not defined, mechanism of fluoride retention by MgO was not fully understood, issue of lowering the pH of MgO treated water within potable water limits was not comprehensively addressed, safe disposal methods of fluoride bearing sludge were not explored. Failure to address the above issues has impeded the adoption of the MgO treatment method for fluoride removal from water. Scope of the study Present study aims to develop a new sustainable de-fluoridation method, applicable to a wide range of groundwater chemical compositions and fluoride concentrations, based on co-precipitation/precipitation-sedimentation-filtration processes using light MgO. Efforts are made to implement the method at domestic level in a rural area with incidence of high fluoride concentration in groundwater and to understand the status and geochemistry of fluoride contamination in the area. The main objectives of the study include: To determine the fluoride retention characteristics of MgO viz.,rate, equilibrium time and capacity of fluoride retention. To examine the influence of process variables on fluoride retention characteristics of MgO and to determine the optimum operating parameters for effective de-fluoridation process. To understand the mechanism and rate limiting step of MgO de-fluoridation process. To propose methods and specifications to lower the pH of MgO treated water within permissible limits to ensure its potability. To design a simple to use, single-stage domestic de-fluoridation unit. To propose procedures for implementation of the new de-fluoridation method in field. To evaluate the efficiency of the new de-fluoridation method as a useful remedial measure in the fluoride affected areas. To understand the geochemical factors governing the quality of the fluoride rich groundwater and to ascertain the status and geochemistry of fluoride contamination in the area where felid implementation of de-fluoridation method is planned. To characterize the fluoride bearing sludge and propose methods for safe disposal and reuse of fluoride bearing sludge. Organization of the thesis Chapter1 presents an overview of the various aspects of excess fluoride presence in groundwater, remedial measures, and emphasizes the need for a new sustainable de-fluoridation method and defines the scope of present study. Chapter 2 performs a detailed investigation to determine the fluoride retention characteristics of MgO under the influence of various process variables at transient and equilibrium conditions using batch studies. The process variables that have been considered are, contact time, initial fluoride concentration, dosage of MgO, temperature, initial pH, presence of co-ions and ionic strength. Studies to determine the optimum operating parameters for efficient de-fluoridation and to understand some basics of reaction mechanisms involved are also part of this chapter. Chapter 3 examines the true nature of the reaction mechanism between fluoride ions and MgO in aqueous media and the rate-limiting step of the de-fluoridation process by investigating the hydration process of MgO and its influence/relation on fluoride removal. Chapter 4 addresses issues that will assist applying the MgO treatment method for fluoride removal in field such as 1)methods and specifications for lowering the pH of the MgO treated water within permissible limits, 2)design of a simple to use, single-stage de-fluoridation unit, and 3)characterization of the resultant fluoride bearing sludge. Chapter 5 performs a detailed investigation to evaluate the efficiency of the new de-fluoridation method in laboratory and field, and to understand the origin and the geochemicall mechanisms driving the groundwater fluorine enrichment in the area where field implementation of the de-fluoridation unit was planned. Chapter 6 explores an environmentally safe route for the disposal and re-use of fluoride bearing sludge in soil based building materials such as, stabilized soil blocks (produced by cement stabilization of densely compacted soil mass) which are alternative to burnt bricks. Chapter 7 summarizes the major results, observations and contributions from the study.

The development and improvement of the functionality of metal oxides in heterogeneous catalysis and other surface chemical processes can greatly benefit from an atomic-level understanding of the surface chemistry. Atomistic calculations such as quantum mechanical (QM) calculations and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations can provide highly detailed information about the atomic and electronic structure, and constitute valuable complements to experimental surface science techniques. In this thesis, an embedded-cluster approach for quantum mechanical calculations has been developed to model the surface chemistry of metal oxides. In particular, CO adsorption on the MgO(001) and CeO2(110) surfaces as well as O vacancy formation at the CeO2(110) surface have been investigated. The cluster model has been thoroughly tested by comparison with electronic structure calculations for the periodic slab model. The chemical implications of distorted surface structures arising from the surface dynamics have been investigated by combining the QM embedded-cluster calculations with force-field based MD simulations. Here QM embedded-cluster calculations were performed using surface structures sampled from the MD simulations. This combined MD+QM embedded-cluster procedure was applied to the CO adsorption on MgO(001) at 50 K and the O vacancy formation on CeO2(110) at 300 K. Significant thermal variations of the CO adsorption energy and the O vacancy formation energy were observed. It was found that these variations could be estimated using the force field of the MD simulation as an interaction model. With this approach, the QM results were extrapolated to higher temperature and doped systems.