By conducting this theory-based empirical study, gathering data from working negotiators in the US and Canada, I have determined what primary dynamic activities, communication skills, and negotiation tools are used by hostage/crisis negotiators. Negotiators implement their negotiation and decision strategies differently depending on whether the situations they deal with are instrumental or expressive. I have determined which elements of negotiations and factors affecting negotiations differ while handling instrumental and expressive hostage situations. I found that the collected data did not reveal any significant relationship between handling instrumental/expressive hostage situations differently and belief in the elements of Brenda Dervin's and Shannon-Weaver's theories. I have also determined that the belief in the elements of the Dervin's and Shannon-Weaver's theories is workable and practical for negotiators to use. Based on the above findings, the model suggested by this research adds the elements and directives of Dervin's and Shannon-Weaver's models to the common approach used by the negotiators. This revised model suggests that the negotiators pay attention to the dynamics of the interactions presented between the two parties: the negotiators themselves and hostage takers. The revised model also recommends that the negotiators focus on not only the hostage takers behavioral characteristics, psychological conditions, and criminal history but also on the meaning of the sent message and the interaction itself as performed between the two parties. This perspective enables the negotiators to look at the negotiation process as information and communication process. We are not ignoring the fact that hostage negotiation is a format of extreme information management. By looking at such an extreme case, we can add to our understanding of Dervin's and Shannon-Weaver's perspectives in order to see the hostage negotiation process from a wider perspective. The revised model is not an alternative approach to the common approach most negotiators use. Instead, the revised model uses the perspective and directives of the common approach and extends its meaning and content by also focusing on Dervin's sense making theory and Shannon-Weaver's communication model perspectives. The use of the perspective of this revised model is one more tool for the negotiators to use in order to promote new ways of looking at hostage negotiation resolutions.

Escalation of Commitment (EoC) behaviour occurs when a Decision Making Unit (DMU), such as an individual or group, continues with a course of action despite receiving negative feedback about it. Much research exists, within multiple disciplines, which attempts to explain why DMUs continue with failing courses of action. To date however, there has been very little critical inquiry of such research. Using a historical research approach, this thesis reviews and critically assesses all existing EoC behaviour research and concludes that a number of serious issues exist. These include the use of multiple labels by authors to describe the phenomenon; the considerable uncertainty that exists regarding which DMUs are subject to EoC behaviour; the existence of multiple, concurrent definitions for each ‘theory label’ and important EoC behaviour concepts, such as escalation, DMU, resource, success, failure and commitment, not being adequately defined. It is contended that these and other issues exist primarily because of the scope of the phenomenon and the resultant high quantity and complexity of research; all of which impair research technique. However, independent, pre-existing research technique issues are also proposed as reasons. Ultimately, it is argued that the state of EoC behaviour research is poor. It is considered that the mere recognition of the issues raised in this thesis will assist in the improvement of the research. Yet this aspect in isolation is deemed inadequate. In response, a prescriptive technique is developed which is bifurcated between resolutely defining the important concepts related to EoC behaviour research and creating an ‘integrated framework’ which includes all existing EoC behaviour determinants from all research disciplines. The proposed framework also identifies a number of new potential determinants of EoC behaviour, including the Autoepistemic Sunk Cost Effect (ASCE), the age of the DMU and anthropomorphic revenge motives. It is suggested that these two prescriptive responses will also promote focussed future EoC behaviour research, designated in the thesis as research direction. This thesis contributes to existing knowledge by not only recognising research issues that have not previously been acknowledged but also by prescribing for these issues through a complete concept exploration, coupled with a complete collective framework.

A hipótese básica do presente trabalho é que embora a ocorrência de uma determinada doença possa apresentar impactos econômicos expressivos para a pecuária de um país - onerando não apenas a atividade produtiva - alguns produtores não reconhecem, individualmente, a importância devida em adotar medidas preventivas, uma vez que a ocorrência da doença não é frequente. Ademais, a existência de externalidades faz com que a ação de um produtor em relação às medidas sanitárias de seu rebanho afete os demais produtores da mesma região, o que também pode não ser percebido por eles. Diante disso, o presente trabalho desenvolve um procedimento teórico para a análise de decisões estratégicas dos produtores quanto à prevenção contra doenças em animais, face ao risco de contaminação de seu rebanho. O desenvolvimento do modelo é baseado nos preceitos da Teoria dos Jogos, e na análise econômica de benefício/custo como suporte da tomada de decisão do produtor. Depois de modelado o problema e determinados os possíveis equilíbrios do jogo, infere-se sobre as possíveis atuações do governo, no uso de incentivos econômicos (como indenizações e multas) para que o equilíbrio seja o da prevenção. Em seguida, o modelo teórico é aplicado a um caso específico de surto de febre aftosa no Brasil. Os resultados mostram que quando não se tem um mercado diferenciado para animal não vacinado, o equilíbrio do jogo tende para a situação onde os produtores decidem vacinar seu rebanho, sugerindo que não existe a necessidade de intervenção do governo para estimular a prevenção. Na prática, no entanto, o governo brasileiro estabelece políticas de incentivo, visto que alguns produtores não vacinam seu rebanho mesmo conhecendo os riscos, o que se traduz na falta de racionalidade dos mesmos. Considerando essa irracionalidade por parte de alguns produtores, o presente estudo é importante para que estes possam delinear panoramas de decisão, de forma a identificar as melhores ações a serem tomadas de forma coletiva. / The basic hypothesis of this study is that producers do not perceive, individually, the importance of adopting prevention measures, even when aware of the economic risks for them and for the local economy, because the outbreaks of some diseases are not frequent. Moreover, the presence of externalities is such that the action of one producer regarding sanitary measures of the herd affects other producers in the same region, which also cannot be perceived by them. This study aims to develop a theoretical procedure to infer about strategic decisions taken by producers to prevent animal disease in their herds, in face of the risk of contamination. The development of the model is based on the Game Theory, and the benefit cost analysis as support for producer\'s decision. After modeling the problem and determining the equilibriums, these are used to elaborate inferences about possible actions of the government through economic incentives (such as indemnities and fines) to encourage the prevention. Then, the theoretical model is applied to a specific case of a foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) outbreak in Brazil. The results indicate that in the absence of a differential market for non-vaccinated animals, the game equilibrium tends to the situation where producer\'s decisions are to vaccinate their herd, suggesting that government intervention is not necessary. Even though, the Brazilian government uses incentive policies for the cattle vaccination since some producers do not vaccinate their animals, despite of their awareness of the risks, which suggests lack of rationality. Considering the irrationality of some producers, this study is important for them to delineate decisions scenes, identifying the best actions to be taken in the collective context.

A hipótese básica do presente trabalho é que embora a ocorrência de uma determinada doença possa apresentar impactos econômicos expressivos para a pecuária de um país - onerando não apenas a atividade produtiva - alguns produtores não reconhecem, individualmente, a importância devida em adotar medidas preventivas, uma vez que a ocorrência da doença não é frequente. Ademais, a existência de externalidades faz com que a ação de um produtor em relação às medidas sanitárias de seu rebanho afete os demais produtores da mesma região, o que também pode não ser percebido por eles. Diante disso, o presente trabalho desenvolve um procedimento teórico para a análise de decisões estratégicas dos produtores quanto à prevenção contra doenças em animais, face ao risco de contaminação de seu rebanho. O desenvolvimento do modelo é baseado nos preceitos da Teoria dos Jogos, e na análise econômica de benefício/custo como suporte da tomada de decisão do produtor. Depois de modelado o problema e determinados os possíveis equilíbrios do jogo, infere-se sobre as possíveis atuações do governo, no uso de incentivos econômicos (como indenizações e multas) para que o equilíbrio seja o da prevenção. Em seguida, o modelo teórico é aplicado a um caso específico de surto de febre aftosa no Brasil. Os resultados mostram que quando não se tem um mercado diferenciado para animal não vacinado, o equilíbrio do jogo tende para a situação onde os produtores decidem vacinar seu rebanho, sugerindo que não existe a necessidade de intervenção do governo para estimular a prevenção. Na prática, no entanto, o governo brasileiro estabelece políticas de incentivo, visto que alguns produtores não vacinam seu rebanho mesmo conhecendo os riscos, o que se traduz na falta de racionalidade dos mesmos. Considerando essa irracionalidade por parte de alguns produtores, o presente estudo é importante para que estes possam delinear panoramas de decisão, de forma a identificar as melhores ações a serem tomadas de forma coletiva. / The basic hypothesis of this study is that producers do not perceive, individually, the importance of adopting prevention measures, even when aware of the economic risks for them and for the local economy, because the outbreaks of some diseases are not frequent. Moreover, the presence of externalities is such that the action of one producer regarding sanitary measures of the herd affects other producers in the same region, which also cannot be perceived by them. This study aims to develop a theoretical procedure to infer about strategic decisions taken by producers to prevent animal disease in their herds, in face of the risk of contamination. The development of the model is based on the Game Theory, and the benefit cost analysis as support for producer\'s decision. After modeling the problem and determining the equilibriums, these are used to elaborate inferences about possible actions of the government through economic incentives (such as indemnities and fines) to encourage the prevention. Then, the theoretical model is applied to a specific case of a foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) outbreak in Brazil. The results indicate that in the absence of a differential market for non-vaccinated animals, the game equilibrium tends to the situation where producer\'s decisions are to vaccinate their herd, suggesting that government intervention is not necessary. Even though, the Brazilian government uses incentive policies for the cattle vaccination since some producers do not vaccinate their animals, despite of their awareness of the risks, which suggests lack of rationality. Considering the irrationality of some producers, this study is important for them to delineate decisions scenes, identifying the best actions to be taken in the collective context.

The past decade has become rife with an eagerness to integrate new digital technology into teaching. While there have been decades of research done on the importance of curriculum and pedagogy on student engagement, findings of actual technology integration are scarce. Moreover, what does it take to engage students in classroom activities and lessons when technology is introduced? The purpose of this study was to explore how digital technology, when integrated into classroom teaching and activities, impacted the students-classroom engagement based on the interim-cognitive, meta-cognitive, motivational, and behavioral markers. This was explored in a Texas public high school across the four core classes (English, Math, Science, and Social Studies. Data was collected in the form of observational field notes, transcripts of recorded lessons, and Likert-scaled surveys. Thematic analysis was used in analyzing qualitative data, Pearson’s correlation of those components found by factor analysis verified three of the five themes identified from the thematic analysis with statistical significance. The findings suggest that mere use of technology does not have a profound impact on student engagement. Instead, technology tends to amplify the existing classroom culture and social norms agreed upon between the teacher and their students. Texas teachers and students are also redefining the meaning of curriculum to include technology as a result of the attempted integration. This research finds that students’ hands-on activities under teachers’ guidance with the use of technology excel when teachers are molding digital work.

本研究試圖從Dervin提出的意義建構理論(sense-making theory)出發，瞭解報業組織企畫人員在面對不確定狀態下如何選擇資訊，彌補知識差距以完成其策略。 研究人員訪談四名企畫人員以瞭解其資訊尋求行為，結果發現影響報業組織企畫資訊尋求行為的外在情境因素包括：社會經濟、政府政策、文化創意產業、媒體多角化經營、公司資源與制度、以及合作廠商資源。報業組織企畫人員資訊尋求的過程包括：定義問題、選擇詢問對象、執行查詢、評估資訊、確認資訊等因素。此外，個人的知識經驗、社會智能、技術能力都是影響報業媒體企畫人員資訊尋求。 「新聞倫理」則是影響報業組織企畫人員蒐集資訊的特殊因素。 / The present research focuses on how professionals planners seeking information in media planning process.The sence-making theory were employed to observer the case. Four planner were interviewed in the study obtained the situation context conclusions:social economy、government policy、culture creativity industry、media multi-administration、corporate institute & resource and collaboration corporate resource. The information seeking process include: define meaning of question、choose inquire object、do inquire、assessment of information、certification unformation.Also，individual experience of knowledge、social intellectuality、skill ability could affect information seeking of press organization planner. 「News ethics」were specific fact affecting information seeking of press organization planner.

This thesis provides an analysis of the Georgia statewide regional water planning process; a system deemed to be operating in the adaptive management framework. The principal focus of this analysis is to detail a novel paradigm capable of dynamic response to changing resource demands which stems from adaptive management principles and ensures representativeness. The paradigm extends directly from application of the theories of bounded rationality and adaptive management. Development of the framework is accomplished through application of theory and correlated empirical analysis. Extreme drought conditions signal a punctuated-equilibrium effecting statewide water resource management which in turn drives the issuance of an executive-level directive to prioritize and effectively manage critical state water resources. This study evolves directly from analysis of the current effort to establish unified regional water plans which address rapid population growth, and escalating water resource conflicts with Alabama and Florida while satisfying priorities established within the executive directive. Fundamental to this analysis is the survey of currently seated regional water planning council members. The essential function of the survey is to provide a qualitative assessment of the perceptions of appointed council members. These perceptions influence water management techniques prescribed by the final policy. While this is a fuzzy correlation, a primary function of this analysis is to quantify the strength of correlation between perceptions and developed policy. This survey details appointed council member attitudes and attributes and affords analysis of future decision making outcomes. The method prescribed herein unifies multi-level decision making processes under a dynamic adaptive management paradigm, and is intended to link the regional water planning processes with continuous annual assessment in order to achieve the pluralistic benefits of adaptive management decision making.

Purpose – This study aims to explore, and suggest solutions to, the gap between the supply of information from organic meat producers and the demand of information from consumers regarding traceable characteristics (attributes) of meat in a limited geographical area in order to maximize the utilization and value of collected data. Design/methodology/approach – A mixed methods research design is applied to collect both quantitative data from consumers and qualitative data from suppliers to produce empirical results of the supply and demand of information. A theoretical framework of organic food purchase intent is used for the quantitative study as well as the correlation between consumers’ perceived importance of attributes and their willingness-to-pay for meat. The results of the empirical studies are compared to each other in an effort to expose a possible gap using a gap analysis. Findings – Meat is shifting from a price based commodity to a product based on characteristics. This study reveals that there is now a gap between the information made available by organic meat producers and the demand of information from consumers that needs to be recognized in order to maximize the value of collected data. Information regarding environmental impact of raising and transporting the animals is not extensively collected. A substantial amount of data about attributes of perceived importance, such as safety and handling, animal welfare and medication or other treatments is collected but not extensively shared with consumers. Research limitations/implications – The small sample size in a unique area and the scope of the survey data does not provide a result that can be truly generalized. It is therefore suggested that future studies produce results from a larger sample that incorporates the perceived accessibility of important information for consumers. Practical implications – This contributes to the emerging literature of organic food production by comparing both the supply and the demand of information regarding attributes of meat. This information is valuable to organic meat producers and marketers as well as developers of agricultural systems and databases that should shift their focus to consumer oriented traceability systems. Originality/value – This study goes beyond the substantial body of literature regarding attributes of organic food and consumers preferences by comparing these factors to the available supply of information by meat producers and by suggesting solutions to bridge the gap between them. Keywords – Organic meat, Organic agriculture, e-Agriculture, Traceability, Traceability systems, Consumer oriented, Consumer behavior, Willingness-to-pay, Supply and demand, Information gap, Gap analysis, Business development, United States of America, Sense-making theory, Mixed methods Paper type – Research paper, Bachelor’s thesis

The study is an investigation into the pathways of out-of-school youth and their re-entrance into the Education Training and Development (ETD) system or the labour market. In the study the pathways of youth who dropped out of school between grades 1 and 11 are traced as they seek re-entrance to the ETD system, or entrance into the labour market. Particular attention was given to the factors that determine the choices that dropouts make either in re-entering the ETD system or entering the labour market. An analysis of the experiences of the interviewed sample of dropouts is presented. The study employs a qualitative research methodology using interviews to elicit the experiences of dropouts and school managers. The participants (young people and three school principals) were selected through snowballing from a township south of Durban. Individual and focus group interviews were held. The findings provide evidence of the value of investing in education, as suggested by the youth. This is in line with the human capital theory framework that suggests that there are major benefits to investing in education. The study is concluded by suggesting the need for second chance education in South Africa. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2011. / Education Management and Policy Studies / unrestricted

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