The work compares various approaches to periodization the profit and loss, describes the role of "revenue principle in separating the procedures of revenues and expenses in each accounting period and its role in Anglo-Saxon and continental accounting concept. For comparison, the above models are selected as a model of continental (European) approach the German Commercial Code HGB and the Anglo-Saxon approach as a model summary of the standards in the United States usually referred to as US GAAP standards and, ultimately, IFRS, which are attempt to reconcile the above models. The work describes the theoretical base of these models with regard to the fundamentals, principles and accounting categories such as revenues, expenses, gains, losses, assets, liabilities and equity.

Drawing from the black swan theory developed by Nassim Nicholas Taleb, which defines a black swan to be an unexpected high-impact event which people tend to think is easily explained in hindsight, this study explores risk evaluation in relation to conspiratorial beliefs. The hypothesis states that a higher degree of conspiratorial thinking correlates with a proclivity to evaluate risks as being either very high or very low. The method used was a web-based survey consisting of 16 different events, both conspiratorial and non-conspiratorial, of which a total of 291 American participants got to assess the risk by paying a hypothetical sum of money for insuring themselves against the consequences of each event. This was followed by a second survey to assess the participants’ degree of conspiratorial thinking. The first analysis measured the correlation between conspiratorial thinking and the standard deviation of the participants’ money distribution, corresponding to degree of disparity in risk assessment. Based on two clusters that were observed in the aggregate of scores on the conspiracy scale, the participants were divided into conspiracy theorists and non-conspiracy theorists. The second analysis measured main- and interaction effects of what types of events the participants insured themselves against, and what types of events that participants prioritized depending on their degree of conspiratorial thinking. The hypothesis that a higher degree of conspiratorial thinking correlates with a tendency to evaluate risks as being either very high or very low was not supported. The results show that a higher degree of conspiratorial thinking correlates with a lower standard deviation in money distribution, and that the conspiracy theorists insured themselves against the consequences of less likely and more conspiratorial events compared to the non-conspiracy theorists. This study supports the idea that conspiracy theorists tend to follow a consistent conspiratorial narrative, believing in several conspiracy theories and not just one.

Bakgrund och problem: Ett tolkningsutrymme har identifierats i IAS 38 gällande kriterierna som behandlar aktivering av FoU. Detta kan innebära ett problem då det finns risk för variation mellan företag i tolkning och tillämpning av kriterierna. Det kan i sin tur påverka jämförbarheten mellan företagen i redovisningen av FoU. Syfte: Syftet med denna studie är att utifrån ett informationsasymmetriproblem studera jämförbarheten mellan företag i redovisning av FoU. Vi ämnar kartlägga tillämpningen av kriterierna i IAS 38 med avseende på variation mellan företag. En eventuell variation ämnar vi förklara utifrån hur företag förhåller sig till försiktighets- och matchningsprincipen. Metod: Metodvalet är en kvalitativ undersökning med djupgående intervjuer med fem företag i IT-branschen. Under intervjuerna har vi behandlat beslutsprocessen för aktivering av FoU samt deras inställning till avvägningsproblematiken mellan försiktighets- och matchningsprincipen. För att utreda studiens syfte har vi använt oss av en analysmodell som illustrerar konflikten mellan försiktighets- och matchningsprincipen med hjälp av en skala. Företagens placering på skalan gällande redovisningen av FoU har utgjort grunden för analysen. Empiri och slutsats: Utifrån det empiriska underlaget har vi funnit att företagens unika förutsättningar såsom FoU-projektens utformning, kännedom om produktefterfrågan samt projektredovisningssystem påverkar hur företagen tillämpar kriterierna i IAS 38. Företagens unika förutsättningar har lett till att företagen har ett principbeslut gällande aktivering av FoU. På så sätt påverkar principbeslutet tillämpningen av kriterierna. Att företagens tillämpning av försiktighets- och matchningsprincipen kan förklara principbeslutet har vi sett tendenser på. De är dock svaga och därför kan vi inte med säkerhet dra slutsatsen att redovisningsprinciper har en påverkan på tillämpningen av kriterierna. Resultatet från denna studie tyder på att redovisningen av FoU mellan företag inte är jämförbar på grund av variation i principbesluten. / Background and problem: We have identified a room for discretion and interpretation in IAS 38 regarding the criteria for capitalization of R&D expenses. This can be a problem if there is a risk for variation in interpretation and use of the criteria, which can in turn affect the comparability between companies in the accounting for R&D.   Aim: The aim with this study is to analyze the comparability between companies in the accounting for R&D from an information asymmetry perspective. We intend to illustrate the use of the criteria in IAS 38 regarding variation between companies. Our purpose is to use the prudence and matching principle to explain a possible variation.   Method: The choice of method is a qualitative research through deep interviews with five companies in the IT-industry. During the interviews we have treated the decision-making process for capitalization of R&D and the companies’ attitude to the trade off between prudence and matching principle. In the study we have used an analysis model that illustrate the conflict between the prudence and matching principle as a scale. The companies’ placement on the scale regarding their accounting for R&D makes the foundation for our analysis.   Result and conclusion: From our empirical results we have found that the companies’ unique conditions, like the structure of R&D-projects, knowledge of the product demand and project accounting system affect the usage of the criteria in IAS 38. The different conditions in all the companies have resulted in different policy decisions regarding capitalization. Therefore the policy decision affects the usage of the criteria. We have only seen weak trends that the prudence and matching principle can explain the policy decision in the companies. Therefore we cannot for certainty conclude that accounting principles affect the usage of the criteria in IAS 38. The results indicate that the accounting for R&D is not comparable because of the variation in policy decision.

In the late 1990s and early 2000s several revenue recognition scandals arose, which led to a discussion about the need for a new principle-based standard with a balance sheet-based approach for revenue recognition. On 1st of January 2018 IFRS 15 Revenue from Contracts with Customers became effective and replaced all previous revenue recognition standards and interpretations. All companies are expected to be affected regarding when and how much the company reports its revenue, though the scope may vary from one company to another. This study aims to investigate how the application of IFRS 15 has impacted companies based on the business models they apply in their customer agreements. To operationalize the purpose of the study a quantitative method was adopted to gather the empirical data, which have been obtained from the companies’ annual reports. An enumeration was implemented, why all listed companies on Nasdaq Stockholm which are required to implement IFRS 15 have been studied. The results indicate that a minority of the companies have showed an impact and most of the companies have not been impacted after an implementation of the new revenue recognition standard. The study has identified that the reason why companies are affected by IFRS 15 depends on the business models’ companies apply in their customer agreements. The minority of companies that have been affected by IFRS 15 are the ones which have developed business models that includes complex customer contracts, i.e. customer contracts consisting of complex commitments and promises of goods and services to customers. Accordingly, the majority of the studied companies uses business models with non-complex customer contracts in their customer agreements, e.g. simple sale of only one good, hence their revenue recognition under IFRS 15 does not differ from previous accounting standards.

Bakgrund/Problemdiskussion: Framtagandet av intäktsstandarden IFRS 15 påbörjades efter ett antal skandaler som visat på en problematik i det traditionella synsättet med att erkänna intäkter. Ett flertal debatter har uppkommit i hur den nya omfattande intäktsstandarden kommer ge effekt i redovisningen. Syfte: Syftet med studien är att skapa förståelse för varför intäktsströmmar påverkas respektive inte påverkas i och med övergången till IFRS 15. Metod: Vi har med utgångspunkt från en kvantitativ forskningsansats samlat in det empiriska materialet för denna studie. Detta har gjorts genom att främst utgå från data som finns i bolagens årsredovisningar 2017. För vissa bolag har även bokslutskommunikén 2017 använts som komplement för årsredovisningarna. Bolag som studerades var samtliga Large Cap bolag på Nasdaq Nordic STO.   Empiri: Av totalt 95 bolag visade 19 bolag att de fick en kvantifierbar effekt av den nya intäktsstandarden. 75 bolag redovisade att de inte skulle få någon kvantifierbar effekt av den nya intäktsstandarden, medan 1 bolag blev bortfall för studien. Slutsatser: Den nya intäktsstandarden har inneburit att bolagen behövt iaktta ett fokus på kontroll vilket bestämmer tidpunkten för intäktsredovisningen. I denna studie går det inte att avgöra ifall specifika intäktsströmmars karaktärer varit grunden till den kvantifierbara effekten som IFRS 15 givit, utan detta har snarare bestämts av det fördelade transaktionspriset på prestationsåtaganden vilket satt kontraktets värde. / Background: The development of a new revenue recognition standard IFRS 15, began after a number of scandals that showed problems with the traditional approach of recognizing revenues. The comprehensive revenue standard has arisen many discussions of how the standard will impact the accounting of enterprises.    Purpose: The purpose of this study is to understand why revenue streams gets affected and not gets affected of the transition to IFRS 15.    Method: The data for this study has been collected, through a quantitative research. The data has mainly been collected from the company´s annual reports 2017. The Q4 reports for 2017 has for some companies been used as a complement to the annual report. The study contained all Large Cap companies listed at Nasdaq Nordic STO.   Results: Of a total of 95 companies, 19 companies showed that they had a quantifiable effect of the new revenue standard. 75 companies reported that they would not have a quantifiable effect of the new standard, while one company was a loss for this study.   Conclusions: The new revenue standard has meant that companies need to observe a focus on control, which determines the timing of the revenue recognition. In this study, it is not possible to assess whether the characteristics of specific revenue streams have been the basis of the quantifiable effect that IFRS 15 has given, but this has rather been determined by the distributed transaction price on performance commitments, which set the value of the contract.

Graduation theses desribes business income, revenues, expenses, costs and cost classification. It shows up accounting concepts and princeples. It interpets different access to the business income. It shows this problem in setting of International Financial Reporting Standards, US GAAP, EU and Czech Republic (subject and presenting financial data). Thesis describes relation between income and financial analysis. It represents maintainance of business substance. In conclusion I describe valuation models and their relations to income.