It has previously been determined that using 3 or 4 points on a categorized response scale will fail to produce a continuous distribution of scores. However, there is no evidence, thus far, revealing the number of scale points that may indeed possess an approximate or sufficiently continuous distribution. This study provides the evidence to suggest the level of categorization in discrete scales that makes them directly comparable to continuous scales in terms of their measurement properties. To do this, we first introduced a novel procedure for simulating discretely scaled data that was both informed and validated through the principles of the Classical True Score Model. Second, we employed a measurement invariance (MI) approach to confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) in order to directly compare the measurement quality of continuously scaled factor models to that of discretely scaled models. The simulated design conditions of the study varied with respect to item-specific variance (low, moderate, high), random error variance (none, moderate, high), and discrete scale categorization (number of scale points ranged from 3 to 101). A population analogue approach was taken with respect to sample size (N = 10,000). We concluded that there are conditions under which response scales with 11 to 15 scale points can reproduce the measurement properties of a continuous scale. Using response scales with more than 15 points may be, for the most part, unnecessary. Scales having from 3 to 10 points introduce a significant level of measurement error, and caution should be taken when employing such scales. The implications of this research and future directions are discussed.

It has previously been determined that using 3 or 4 points on a categorized response scale will fail to produce a continuous distribution of scores. However, there is no evidence, thus far, revealing the number of scale points that may indeed possess an approximate or sufficiently continuous distribution. This study provides the evidence to suggest the level of categorization in discrete scales that makes them directly comparable to continuous scales in terms of their measurement properties. To do this, we first introduced a novel procedure for simulating discretely scaled data that was both informed and validated through the principles of the Classical True Score Model. Second, we employed a measurement invariance (MI) approach to confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) in order to directly compare the measurement quality of continuously scaled factor models to that of discretely scaled models. The simulated design conditions of the study varied with respect to item-specific variance (low, moderate, high), random error variance (none, moderate, high), and discrete scale categorization (number of scale points ranged from 3 to 101). A population analogue approach was taken with respect to sample size (N = 10,000). We concluded that there are conditions under which response scales with 11 to 15 scale points can reproduce the measurement properties of a continuous scale. Using response scales with more than 15 points may be, for the most part, unnecessary. Scales having from 3 to 10 points introduce a significant level of measurement error, and caution should be taken when employing such scales. The implications of this research and future directions are discussed.

The measurement of reliable and valid indicators of early child development is necessary for assessing phenomena and is useful in the monitoring of ongoing efforts to eradicate inequalities in the social determinants of health. There is an increasing awareness of the contextual, cultural, and developmental influences on constructs used in early child development (ECD) research. Using a measurement perspective, this dissertation examined the issue of measurement invariance and psychometric validity in early child development research. A construct violates the principle of invariance when two persons from different populations who are theoretically identical on the construct being measured have different scores on it. This dissertation consists of three journal-style manuscripts (published or under review) that were used as examples to address the importance of the issue of measurement invariance and psychometric validity in ECD research using data from two unique areas: autism and executive functioning. The three data sets were collected on pre-school children with parents and or teachers as informants and were chosen to represent different levels of data collection – clinical, community, and population. These data sets allowed for the examination of measurement invariance by type of informant, sex, and age of child. The results from the three studies illustrate the importance of assessing measurement invariance in ECD and whether or not the instruments examined can be used to assess sub-group differences with confidence. A lack of measurement invariance found for two of the studies, suggests that observed group differences in latent constructs could be attributed, in part, to measurement bias. More importantly, bias in the measurement of the constructs of severity of social impairment symptoms in autism, and executive functioning across groups could have an impact on services such as patient treatment. These biases could also influence public policy development, particularly when there may be an underlying need for a cross-group approach where belief systems may affect the meaning and structure of constructs. In summary, measurement invariance should be a prerequisite for making any meaningful comparisons across groups. A requirement of establishing measurement invariance should be included in the guidelines for comparative research studies as a necessary first step before an instrument is adopted for use.

It has previously been determined that using 3 or 4 points on a categorized response scale will fail to produce a continuous distribution of scores. However, there is no evidence, thus far, revealing the number of scale points that may indeed possess an approximate or sufficiently continuous distribution. This study provides the evidence to suggest the level of categorization in discrete scales that makes them directly comparable to continuous scales in terms of their measurement properties. To do this, we first introduced a novel procedure for simulating discretely scaled data that was both informed and validated through the principles of the Classical True Score Model. Second, we employed a measurement invariance (MI) approach to confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) in order to directly compare the measurement quality of continuously scaled factor models to that of discretely scaled models. The simulated design conditions of the study varied with respect to item-specific variance (low, moderate, high), random error variance (none, moderate, high), and discrete scale categorization (number of scale points ranged from 3 to 101). A population analogue approach was taken with respect to sample size (N = 10,000). We concluded that there are conditions under which response scales with 11 to 15 scale points can reproduce the measurement properties of a continuous scale. Using response scales with more than 15 points may be, for the most part, unnecessary. Scales having from 3 to 10 points introduce a significant level of measurement error, and caution should be taken when employing such scales. The implications of this research and future directions are discussed. / Education, Faculty of / Educational and Counselling Psychology, and Special Education (ECPS), Department of / Graduate

The measurement of reliable and valid indicators of early child development is necessary for assessing phenomena and is useful in the monitoring of ongoing efforts to eradicate inequalities in the social determinants of health. There is an increasing awareness of the contextual, cultural, and developmental influences on constructs used in early child development (ECD) research. Using a measurement perspective, this dissertation examined the issue of measurement invariance and psychometric validity in early child development research. A construct violates the principle of invariance when two persons from different populations who are theoretically identical on the construct being measured have different scores on it. This dissertation consists of three journal-style manuscripts (published or under review) that were used as examples to address the importance of the issue of measurement invariance and psychometric validity in ECD research using data from two unique areas: autism and executive functioning. The three data sets were collected on pre-school children with parents and or teachers as informants and were chosen to represent different levels of data collection – clinical, community, and population. These data sets allowed for the examination of measurement invariance by type of informant, sex, and age of child. The results from the three studies illustrate the importance of assessing measurement invariance in ECD and whether or not the instruments examined can be used to assess sub-group differences with confidence. A lack of measurement invariance found for two of the studies, suggests that observed group differences in latent constructs could be attributed, in part, to measurement bias. More importantly, bias in the measurement of the constructs of severity of social impairment symptoms in autism, and executive functioning across groups could have an impact on services such as patient treatment. These biases could also influence public policy development, particularly when there may be an underlying need for a cross-group approach where belief systems may affect the meaning and structure of constructs. In summary, measurement invariance should be a prerequisite for making any meaningful comparisons across groups. A requirement of establishing measurement invariance should be included in the guidelines for comparative research studies as a necessary first step before an instrument is adopted for use.

Background Demands placed on individuals in occupational and social settings, as well as imbalances in personal traits and resources, can lead to chronic stress. The Trier Inventory for Chronic Stress (TICS) measures chronic stress while incorporating domain-specific aspects, and has been found to be a highly reliable and valid research tool. The aims of the present study were to confirm the German version TICS factorial structure in an English translation of the instrument (TICS-E) and to report its psychometric properties. Methods A random route sample of healthy participants (N = 483) aged 18–30 years completed the TICS-E. The robust maximum likelihood estimation with a mean-adjusted chi-square test statistic was applied due to the sample’s significant deviation from the multivariate normal distribution. Goodness of fit, absolute model fit, and relative model fit were assessed by means of the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), the Comparative Fit Index (CFI) and the Tucker Lewis Index (TLI). Results Reliability estimates (Cronbach’s α and adjusted split-half reliability) ranged from .84 to .92. Item-scale correlations ranged from .50 to .85. Measures of fit showed values of .052 for RMSEA (Cl = 0.50–.054) and .067 for SRMR for absolute model fit, and values of .846 (TLI) and .855 (CFI) for relative model-fit. Factor loadings ranged from .55 to .91. Conclusion The psychometric properties and factor structure of the TICS-E are comparable to the German version of the TICS. The instrument therefore meets quality standards for an adequate measurement of chronic stress.

Die Zwangsstörung ist durch sehr verschiedenartige Symptome charakterisiert. Diese Symptomheterogenität stellt Herausforderungen für die psychologische Diagnostik dar. Die Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS) gilt als der Goldstandard bei der Messung von Zwangssymptomen. Mittels einer großen Stichprobe von Zwangspatienten hatte diese Arbeit drei Ziele zur Weiterentwicklungen psychometrischer Methoden: Erstens wurden die Messmodelle von Zwangssymptomen evaluiert und verbessert. Dabei fand eine umfassende Überarbeitung statt, wobei Bayesianische Messmodelle genutzt wurden. Zweitens wurde getestet, ob die Messeigenschaften der Y-BOCS über die Zeit und für weitere klinische relevante Variablen konstant sind. In einer breit angelegten Messinvarianzanalyse wurden nur wenige Verletzungen der Messinvarianz gefunden. Falls solche vorliegen, werden Gruppenvergleiche verzerrt und eventuell falsche Schlussfolgerungen gezogen. Für diese Situationen wurde drittens eine Erweiterung partieller Messinvarianzmodelle entwickelt und angewendet. Partielle Messinvarianzmodelle ermöglichen valide Gruppenvergleiche auch dann, wenn Messinvarianz nur für einige wenige Items hält. Es wurde eine Methode zur Modellmittelung entwickelt, die die Unsicherheit berücksichtigt, die in der Auswahl von Items für partielle Messinvarianz liegt. Das entwickelte Bayesianische Verfahren macht Analyseentscheidungen komplett sichtbar und damit diskutierbar. Die vorgelegten Studien dienen der Weiterentwicklung psychometrischer Analysen in der klinischen Diagnostik im Allgemeinen und stärken die Validität der Messung durch die Y-BOCS im Besonderen. Klinische Studien können vertrauenswürdige Ergebnisse nur aufbauend auf soliden Messverfahren erzielen. Außerdem werden weitere neuere Entwicklungen in der psychometrischen Theorie im Hinblick auf ihren Nutzen in der klinischen Diagnostik und dem Verständnis der Zwangsstörung diskutiert. / Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is characterized by heterogeneous symptoms. Like for many clinical phenomena, this heterogeneity in symptoms poses challenges to psychological assessment. The Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS) has developed into a gold standard within the past three decades. Using a large sample of patients suffering from OCD, we worked towards three goals in order to advance psychometric methods: First, evaluating and improving the measurement models associated with OCD symptoms by means of an exhaustive overhaul and the usage of Bayesian measurement modeling. Second, to test whether the Y-BOCS' measurement properties are stable across time and other features relevant to clinical research. In a broad analysis of measurement invariance (MI), we found only few instances where MI did not hold. Under such circumstances, group comparisons may be biased and conclusions could be misleading. For such situations, we thirdly derived and applied a procedure extending partial MI modeling. In partial MI models, group comparisons are still valid, even if MI holds only for a few items. We developed a model averaging approach that appropriately reflects the uncertainty stemming from choosing items for partial MI models. The developed Bayesian procedure makes decisions made during the analysis fully transparent and thus open to discussion. The presented studies form a research program that advances psychometrical analyses in clinical assessment and increases the validity of the assessment of OCD by means of the Y-BOCS. Clinical trials require such sound measurements in order to provide trustworthy conclusions. Furthermore, we discuss other recent advances in the field of psychometry and their usability for clinical research as a whole and the understanding of OCD specifically.

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本論文目的在分析臺灣學生學習成就評量資料庫(TASA)之新移民子女學習成就、心理、背景特質表現，及與本土子女進行比較。研究中自描述新移民族群的歷史演變、發展、可能遭遇困境與相關的研究中，進而，再搭配現行既有評量架構，以決定針對國小(四、六年級)新移民子女之數學成就、性別、家庭結構、家庭語言環境、家庭社經地位、家人、自我教育期望、親子關係、學校適應、學習策略、學習偏好、能力歸因、數學能力自我概念、內在動機、家庭作業、課業補習、課外活動等十多項心理、背景特質進行分析，而在詮釋其理論、實徵研究基礎後，運用測量不變性、多元潛在迴歸分析等技術以進行本研究各項議題之探討，希冀能就分析結果，提供未來研究之參考。 綜整分析後，可發現以下幾點結論： 一、在針對數學成就進行族群間之比較時，研究中在單向度假設與Rasch模式適配度檢定符合下，進而於排除顯著差異試題功能測量指標後，是運用多元潛在迴歸分析以進行本土與新移民子女數學成就之比較，分析結果顯示，在國小六年級內，並未存在顯著的族群差異，但是於國小四年級中，則是以本土子女的表現平均優於新移民子女，其差異效果為0.36，約屬Cohen(1992)認為介於中等至小的效果量，而接續於分析是否存在其它因素影響時，分析結果是顯示在先天消極的族群因素外，族群間家庭社經地位的不均衡才是真正影響之主因。 二、有關族群間之心理與背景特質比較方面，研究中在經採用測量不變性以確立工具品質，並伴隨著卡方獨立性考驗、獨立樣本t檢定之運用後，其分析結果大致顯示出新移民子女是較本土子女，在家中手足數僅有1位、位居老大或獨子女、繼親家庭與身處雙語環境等現況具有相對的多數，但是在學生認知家人、自我教育期望、親子關係、學校適應、學習策略運用、學習偏好以至課業補習、課外活動時間分派等，整體而言，則多是未具顯著的差異或屬Cohen(1992)所認為小的差異效果量範圍內。另一方面，研究中更突顯出的是族群間家庭社經地位的不平衡，確實占有極大的比重，是具備Cohen認為之中等至小的差異效果。 三、在分析心理、背景特質與數學成就關聯時，研究中在經採多元潛在迴歸分析後，其結果大致顯示：就族群與變項間之交互作用而言，國小四年級學生所認知之自我教育期望、內在動機等，相較於新移民子女，是對本土子女之數學成就有較高的影響力，但是國小六年級學生的家中手足數、家庭社經地位、記憶、控制策略運用與外控能力歸因的認知上，則是相對在新移民子女之數學成就上有較深厚的影響，而至於其它變項之分析，則多未存在族群的差異。進而，在排除族群的干擾，僅就各特質與數學成就關聯之主要效果而言，研究結果顯示除性別、家庭子女的出生序、家庭作業與課業補習分派時間等，存在不顯著或僅部份年級具備顯著效果外，其餘特質皆能符合本研究理論所預測之傾向，大致是以具備過多家中手足數或持過度的外控數學能力歸因者，是會對學生數學成就產生負面的影響，而其餘如來自完整家庭、身處主流語言環境、具備高家庭社經地位、教育期望、和諧親子關係、良好學校適應與擁有高度學習策略、偏好、動機等，則皆能正向的影響數學成就。 最後，研究中是就新移民子女定義、抽樣架構、測量指標等面向，提出對新移民子女學習成長資料庫之建立及與其它實務、研究之建議。 / The purpose of this study is to analyze neo-immigrant children’s achievement, performance in psychological traits and compare these with native children. Starting from the description of development, challenge and related researches of immigrant children in the past, we found the assessment frame of Taiwan Assessment of Student Achievement (TASA) just corresponded to the purpose we expect. Therefore, based on TASA , we decided to analyze the status and performance of neo-immigrant children in math, gender, family structure, language environment, socio-economic status, parents and self expectation, parents-children relationship, school adjustment, learning strategy, learning preference, ability attribution, academic self-concept, intrinsic motivation, time assignment of homework, school cramming, and extracurricular activity etc. Following the support of the theoretical and empirical evidences, we used the technique of measurement invariance and multiple latent regression to discover the different topics in the thesis. In sum, some conclusions are proposed. 1. In the comparison of math achievement between neo-immigrant and native children, we use the technique of multiple latent regression to test the difference after exclusion some items with significant differential item functioning. The result indicates that there is no significant difference between these two races in the sixth grade, but in the fourth grade the native children perform better than neo-immigrant children. The effect size is 0.36, and it is between medium and small degree according to Cohen(1992)’s opinion. Depended on this result, several following analyses are implemented. It shows the inequality of family socio-economic status between races is the main cause instead of the race people belong to. 2. In the comparison of psychological traits between neo-immigrant and native children, we not only use the technique of measurement invariance to ensure the qualities of assessment tools but also adopt chi-square test and independent samples t-test to examine the differences. The results indicate that the neo-immigrant children have more chances belonging to the categories of being eldest among siblings or only one child in his family, living in step-parents family, and involvement in bilingual environment. But there is almost no or just little difference between the two races in the perception of parent and self expectation, parents-children relationship, school adjustment, learning strategy application, learning preference, and the time assignment of school cramming and extracurricular activity. Besides, we found the inequality of family socio-economic status between races is the most different. The effect sizes range approximately from small to medium degree according to Cohen(1992)’s opinion. 3. In this study, we used the technique of multiple latent regression to analyze the relationship between different psychological traits and math achievement. The results indicate that as far as the interaction effects are concerned, the perception of self expectation and intrinsic motivation has greater impacts on native children’s math achievement than neo-immigrant’s in the fourth grade, but in the sixth grade the family size, family socio-economic status, the usage of memorization and control strategy, external ability attribution have greater impacts on neo-immigrant children’s math achievement than native children’s. Besides, there are no interaction effects on the remaining variables. Furthermore, as far as the main effect is concerned, the result shows that except no or just little relationship between gender, birth order, the time assignment of homework, school cramming and math achievement, the remaining variables have the similar relationships toward math achievement as we expect. That is that having too many siblings, external attribution of math ability may have negative influence on students’ achievement, but students who belong to intact family, involve in the mainstream of language environment, have higher family socio-economic status, and perceive better parent and self expectation, parents-children relationship, school adjustment etc. may have positive influence on their math achievement. Finally, some suggestions about the definition of neo-immigrant children, the way of sampling and qualities of measurement indicators are proposed. We expect they may do a greater help in the construct of the database of Prospect of Neo-Immigrant Children Learning and future usage.

SUMMARY CONSTRUCTING AND VALIDATING A MEASURING INSTRUMENT FOR COPING WITH OCCUPATIONAL STRESS by Melissa du Plessis Supervisor: Prof N. Martins Department: Industrial and Organisational Psychology Degree: Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology Orientation: Occupational stress is still a concern for both individuals and organisations, and academia is no exception. Employees’ ability to cope with occupational stressors depend on the regulatory strategies they adopt in response to the stressor. However, there is no clear consensus on how the coping construct should be measured. Existing literature further outlines various conceptual and methodological concerns regarding the measurement of coping. Van Wyk (2010) advocates that currently, no coping instrument has been developed and very few instruments have been validated in a South African and African context. Research purpose: The primary objective of this research was to construct a valid and reliable instrument for determining which coping strategies academics adopt in response to occupational stress. Research methodology: A combination of steps, suggested by scale development authors, was followed to develop the instrument. The process was broken down into three phases, namely: (1) theoretical investigation, (2) instrument purification, and (3) instrument optimisation. The construction of the questionnaire was based on a sample of 305 university employees who were permanently employed in a higher education institution in the Gauteng Province of South Africa. Main findings: The study resulted in a psychometrically sound 33-item measuring instrument. Nine empirically validated coping strategies emerged, namely (1) social coping, (2) religious coping, (3) cognitive coping, (4) active leisure coping, (5) avoidant coping, (6) social disengagement, (7) vacation time, (8) rumination, and (9) emotional coping. These strategies were further classified as adaptive or maladaptive coping strategies. CFA confirmed the nine-factor model. Empirical support for construct and content validity, internal consistency reliability v and composite reliability was available. The instrument further demonstrated convergent and discriminant validity. Contribution/value-add: The key contribution of this study was the development of a psychometrically sound instrument for determining which coping strategies academics adopt in response to occupational stress. This study further contributed to constructing and empirically testing a model for coping with occupational stress. Lastly, the study provided support for measurement invariance across different demographical groups, and the findings revealed that individuals from different demographical backgrounds differ significantly in the coping strategies they adopt in response to occupational stress. / DIE ONTWIKKELING EN VALIDASIE VAN ’N MEETINSTRUMENT VIR DIE HANTERING VAN BEROEPSTRES deur Melissa du Plessis Promotor: Prof N Martins Departement: Bedryfs- en Organisasiesielkunde Graad: DPhil in Sielkunde Oriëntasie: Beroepstres is steeds ’n bron van kommer vir individue sowel as organisasies, en die akademiese omgewing is geen uitsondering nie. Werknemers se vermoë om beroepstres te hanteer, word bepaal deur die regulatoriese strategieë wat hulle aanneem in reaksie tot die stressor. Daar is egter geen duidelike konsensus oor hoe die hanteringskonstruk gemeet behoort te word nie. Voorts dui bestaande literatuur op verskeie konseptuele en metodologiese probleme met betrekking tot die meet van streshantering. Van Wyk (2010) beweer dat daar tot dusver geen hanteringsinstrument ontwikkel is nie en baie min instrumente is in ’n Suid-Afrikaanse en Afrika-konteks gevalideer. Doel van die navorsing: Die primêre doel van hierdie navorsing was om ’n geldige en betroubare instrument te ontwikkel waarmee daar bepaal kan word watter hanteringstrategieë akademici aanneem om beroepstres te hanteer. Navorsingsmetodologie: Die instrument is ontwikkel deur die kombinasie van verskeie stappe wat deur skrywers oor skaalontwikkeling voorgestel is. Die proses is in die volgende drie fases verdeel: (1) ’n teoretiese ondersoek; (2) die suiwering van die instrument; en (3) die optimalisering van die instrument. Die vraelys is ontwerp met die oog op die steekproef bestaande uit 305 werknemers met permanente aanstellings by ’n hoëronderwysinstelling in die Gauteng provinsie in Suid-Afrika. Hoofbevindinge: Die studie het gelei tot die ontwerp van ’n psigometries betroubare meetinstrument bestaande uit 33 items. Nege empiries gestaafde hanteringstrategieë het na vore gekom: (1) sosiale hantering; (2) religieuse hantering; (3) kognitiewe hantering; (4) aktieweontspanningshantering; (5) vermydende hantering; (6) sosiale ontkoppeling; (7) vakansietyd; (8) ruminering; en (9) emosionele hantering. Hierdie strategieë is verder vii geklassifiseer as adaptiewe of wanadaptiewe hanteringstrategieë. Dié nege-faktormodel is deur BFA bevestig. Empiriese steun vir konstruk- en inhoudsgeldigheid, interne konsekwentheidsbetroubaarheid en saamgestelde betroubaarheid was beskikbaar. Voorts het die instrument ook konvergente en diskriminantgeldigheid gedemonstreer. Bydrae / waardetoevoeging: Die belangrikste bydrae van hierdie studie was die ontwikkeling van ’n psigometries betroubare instrument wat gebruik kan word om te bepaal watter strategieë akademici volg om beroepstres te hanteer. Die studie het ook bygedra tot die ontwerp en empiriese toetsing van ’n model vir die hantering van beroepstres. Ten slotte het die studie metingsinvariansies oor verskillende demografiese groepe heen bevestig en die bevindinge het getoon dat individue uit verskillende demografiese groepe se hanteringstrategieë vir beroepstres merkbaar verskil. / IQOQO LOKUBAKULEKILE UKWAKHA NOKUQINISEKISA ITHULUZI LOKULINGANISA UKUKWAZI UKUMELA UKUKHATHAZEKA NGENXA YEZIMO ZASEMSEBENZINI ngu Melissa du Plessis UMhloli Olulekayo: USolwazi N Martins Umnyango: Izifundo Mayelana Nokusebenza Kwengqondo Nomthelela Walokho Ekuziphatheni Kwabantu Emsebenzini Iziqu: UDokotela Wezifundo Zefilosofi Maqondana Nokusebenza Kwengqondo Nomthelela Walokho Ekuziphatheni Okumaqondana nakho:Ukukhathazeka okumaqondana nezimo zasemsebenzini kusayinto ehlupha abantu ngabodwana nezinkampani, kanti nezazi zezemfundo ephakeme nazo ngeke zashiywa ngaphandle. Ukukwazi kwabasebenzi ukubhekana nezimbangela zokukhathazeka ngenxa yezimo zomsebenzi kuya ngamasu okulawula asetshenziswayo ukubhekana nalokho okudala ukukhathazeka. Nakuba kunjalo, akukho ukuvumelana okucacile ekutheni lokho okwakhiwe kokubhekana nokukhathazeka kungalinganiswa kanjani. Imibhalo ekhona ibeka kabanzi okukhathazayo okwahlukahlukene okuqondene nokuqanjwa nendlela yokwenza maqondana nokulinganiswa kokukwazi ukubhekana nokukhathazeka. UVan Wyk (2010) ulwela ukuthi, njengamanje, akunathuluzi elakhelwe ukuqonda ngokukhathazeka eselike lakhiwa kanti ambalwa amathuluzi aseke aqinisekiswa eNingizimu Afrika nase-Afrika. Injongo yocwaningo:Okuyiyona njongo eqavile yalolu cwaningo ngukwakha ithuluzi elifanele nelikholakalayo ukuveza ukuthi yimaphi amasu okubhekana nezimo asetshenziswa yizazi kwezemfundo ephakeme ezimweni zokukhathazeka ngenxa yomsebenzi. Indlela ezolandelwa ekwenzeni ucwaningo:Ukuze kusungulwe leli thuluzi, kulandelwe inhlanganisela yamagxathu ahlongozwe ngababhala mayelana nokwakhiwa kwezikali. Indlela elandelwayo yahlukaniswa izigaba ezintathu, okuyilezi: (1) ukuhlolwa kwesichasiselo esibonwa ngokucabanga kwengqondo, (2) ukuhlanjululwa kwethuluzi, kanye (3) nokusetshenziswa kwangcono kwethuluzi. Ukuhlanganiswa kohlu lwemibuzo kwakuncike esampuleni lwabasebenzi basenyuvesi abangama-305 ababeqashwe ngokugcwele esikhungweni semfundo ephakeme esifundazweni saseGauteng eNingizimu Afrika. ix Imiphumela yocwaningo eqavile: Lolu cwaningo lwadala ukuba kube khona ithuluzi lokulinganisa elisebenza kahle maqondana nokukala okuphathelene nengqondo okunezinhla ezingama-33. Kwavela amasu ayisishiyagalolunye aqinisekiswe ngokubhekwa, nokuyilawa (1) ukubhekana nesimo ngokokuhlalisana nabantu, (2) ukubhekana nesimo ngokwezenkolo, (3) ukubhekana nesimo ngokokuqonda, (4) ukubhekana nesimo ngokuzibandakanya nezikaqedisizungu, (5) ukubhekana nesimo ngokuzila okuthile, (6) ukungazibandakanyi nezimo ezihlanganisana nabantu, (7) ukungcebeleka, (8) ukuzindla, kanye (9) nokubhekana nesimo ngokuba nomunyu. La masu abuye afakwa ngaphansi kohlu lwamasu okubhekana nesimo alandelekayo nangalandeleki. I-CFA yaziqinisekisa lezi zindlela ezihlukene kasishiyagalolunye. Ukwesekelwa kokubonakele ukuqinisekisa okwakhiwe nokuqukethwe, indlela yokubheka ukuthi ithuluzi elisetshenziswayo likulinganisa ngendlela efanele kangakanani lokho okubhekwayo kanye nokusebenza ngokukholakala ngokuphelele kwamaqoqo asetshenzisiwe. Ithuluzi labuye laveza ukuqinisekiseka kokufanayo nokwahlukayo. Okusebenzile/ okuhambisana nenzuzo: Okuyiyona nto emqoka kakhulu maqondana nalolu cwaningo kwaba ngukusungulwa kwethuluzi lokulinganisa elisebenza kahle maqondana nokulinganisa okuphathelene nengqondo ukubona ukuthi yimaphi amasu okubhekana nezimo asetshenziswa yizazi kwezemfundo ephakeme ezimweni zokukhathazeka ngenxa yomsebenzi. Ucwaningo luphinde lwadlala indima ekwakheni nasekuhloleni ngokubheka okwenzekayo ngethuluzi elingasetshenziselwa ukubhekana nesimo sokukhathazeka emsebenzini. Okokugcina, ucwaningo luhlinzeke ukwesekelwa kokungaguquki kwezilinganiso emaqoqweni ahlukahlukene ngokwezigaba, kanti imiphumela yaveza ukuthi abantu abaqhamuka emaqoqweni ahlukahlukene ngokwezigaba ahluka kakhulu uma kufikwa emaswini abakhetha ukuwasebenzisa maqondana nokukhathazeka ngenxa yezimo zomsebenzi. / Psychology / D. Phil.(Psychology)