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In a world recently declared urban, each day technology plays a more important role in society. A majority of people seem to believe in technology not only for solving everyday problems and for supporting the current production and economic systems, but also for the redress of environmental problems that are caused to a large extent by the same technology that has driven society to the current standards. In this direction, megacities (i.e. cities with more than ten million inhabitants) represent a valuable example of both the problems caused by high urbanization rates and the possibility of solving them using technology. However, the mere development of technology does not guarantee its immediate adoption and successful implementation by a given society. In this thesis, one of the largest megacities in the world (i.e. in terms of population) was chosen as a case study for the analysis of the adoption and diffusion of environmental technology. Mexico City is studied through a set of interviews with local stakeholders from academia, government, industry and other external organizations such as non-profit organizations and international institutions. This approach resulted in the identification of different obstacles to the adoption and implementation of technologies, but also led to a successful case of technology adoption that allowed for the understanding of important traits that facilitated not only such adoption, but also the subsequent diffusion and spread to other cities. Although the thesis has a strong focus on the demand side (in this case Mexico City), the supply side (in this case the Swedish environmental technology sector) is also considered and analyzed. By using statistical data of common enterprise and economic nature, the composition of the sector was described and analyzed with the intention to identify important areas and behavioral traits that could give insight into the hindrances that the sector faces when exporting its offerings. Given the interest that the Swedish government has put in the sector for contributing to the country’s economic growth, the different studies commissioned for the assessment of the sector are also discussed in this thesis. The different conclusions and suggestions made by the different agencies entrusted with this task are shown and analyzed. Conclusions are drawn regarding the need for designing strategies that consider local conditions, that are flexible and adaptive to a highly dynamic environment and that pay particular attention to the development of strong demonstration projects that facilitate overcoming the distrust normally created when new technologies are introduced in a society. / Megatech

La très forte croissance de la population mondiale recensée au siècle dernier s'est accompagnée d'une migration des populations vers les zones urbanisées, créant en quelques décennies et sur tous les continents de véritables mégapoles dont la population excède - pour 50 d'entre elles - 7 millions d'habitants. Mais la population de ces villes a très souvent augmenté trop rapidement pour que les infrastructures existantes (réseaux routiers, transports en communs...) puissent le supporter : la prise en charge des problèmes environnementaux (qualité de l'air, gestion des déchets et des ressources...) y reste donc un vrai défi. En parallèle, les observations comme les modèles numériques relèvent la nécessité de gérer conjointement la problématique de la pollution locale dans les grandes villes et les politiques climatiques, via la prise en compte des transferts de polluants depuis l'échelle locale jusqu'à l'échelle globale. La tendance croissante des concentrations de fond en ozone sur l'Europe - et qui pose un également un problème de gestion du climat - serait ainsi en grande partie dépendante de l'augmentation des émissions des grandes villes de l'hémisphère Nord en croissance économique rapide (Monks et al., 2009).Que connaît-on de l'impact réel de ces mégapoles sur la qualité de l'air ? Peu de choses. Les travaux de recherche visant à comprendre les déterminants de la pollution oxydante ont jusqu'à présent principalement ciblé les échelles locale et régionale. Et si les interactions entre mégapoles et échelle globale ont fait l'objet de plusieurs études (Wild et Akimoto, 2001; Stohl tt al., 2002; Lawrence et al., 2003, 2007) de modélisation, il existe peu de travaux centrés sur les interactions des mégapoles avec leur environnement continental. Mes travaux de thèse se sont donc attachés à caractériser ces impacts à l'aide de la modélisation eulérienne. Mes principaux questionnements ont reposé sur la nature, l'ampleur, la portée, l'impact direct et indirect et enfin la variabilité des flux de polluants exportés par les mégapoles européennes. Mais je me suis également intéressé à la nature même de ces grands centres émetteurs, en me posant la question de la sensibilité de leurs impacts à leur structure urbaine (dense ou étalée). Le développement de nouvelles fonctionnalités dans le modèle, ainsi que son adaptation à des questionnements spécifiques (calcul de flux, nouveau schéma chimique, test d'une version dédiée à l'étude des interactions d'échelles) se sont révélés nécessaires pour apporter des réponses à mes questionnements / The important increase in worldwide population identified during the last century led to a human migration toward urban areas. As a consequence, 50 high populated areas called megacities, reaching more than 7 millions of people, appeared in the last decades. This huge increase happened so fast that existing infrastructures (such as roads network, public transport) is not suitable anymore. Taking into account environmental issues (air quality, supply and waste management) in this context is then a real challenge. In the meantime, observations and numerical models highlight the need to deal with local pollution in megacities as well as climate policy, through the consideration of pollutants transfer from local scale to global scale. The increase of ozone background in Europe, which also is a climate issue, could depend of the increase of the megacities emissions in the north hemisphere, due to the economical development (Monks et al., 2009).What do we know of the megacities real impact on air quality? Scientific studies aiming to understand the key parameters of oxidizing pollution have mainly focus on the local and regional scales. Interactions between megacities and global scale have been the subject of many modelling studies (Wild et Akimoto, 2001; Stohl et al., 2002; Lawrence et al., 2003, 2007). However, there are still few works concerning interactions between megacities and their continental environment. My thesis works were then aiming at identifying theses impacts using eulerian modelling. My main interrogations concerned the nature, the magnitude, the scope, direct and indirect impact, and finally the pollutants exported by European megacities flux variations. In addition, I also investigated the nature of these high emission areas, through the sensitivity of the urban structure on their impacts (compact or spread cities). New tools developments in the model (flux calculation, new chemical scheme, implementation of an upgraded tool dedicated to scales interaction) were necessary to answer the problematic

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This report reviews the current state of long-term climate action planning in 17 cities which have publicly communicated carbon reducttargets in line with the IPCC recommended 80% reduction by 2050 (80x50) for stabilizing the impacts of climate change at 2°C.  The aim of this report is to provide a foundation of support for cities in achieving their deep carbon reduction goals through a comprehensive understanding of leading climate action plans and the context under which they were created, including current city emissions and demographic data, climate plan reduction strategies and targets, and feedback on plan creation and needs from city planning staff.  By achieving this aim, cities are in a better position to understand where their plans fit in the global context and connect with other cities around common issues, research institutions have a new benchmark analysis of leading action plans to build further research upon, and city-level climate action organizations have a clearer idea of how to focus efforts in helping cities achieve carbon reduction goals.  This aim is achieved through the application of a framework for comparing city plans and targets, an analysis of current city emissions and demographic data, and synthesis of key findings from city planning staff discussions.   Key findings show no clear demographic and environmental biases exist within these 17 cities, indicating long-term climate action planning can be undertaken by cities across the full spectrum of size, climate, and current per capita emissions output, though regional geographic and development bias exists.  Plans for carbon reduction are highly concentrated among a small number of actions, indicating the movement has coalesced around a standard set of strategies for achieving deep carbon reductions.  Finally, the relative newness of plans, with the majority less than 5 years old, and the lack of commonality among cities in emissions methodology and communication of reduction strategies, shifts a short-term focus towards standardization methodologies which enable deeper comparison between cities and plans.

[ES] Actualmente, el 54% de la población mundial vive en ciudades y se espera que en 2050 este porcentaje aumente al 68% (UNDESA, 2019). Una parte importante de esta población urbana se concentra en megaciudades, definidas como áreas urba-nas con más de 10 millones de habitantes. En América Latina, las principales megaciudades son Sao Paulo y Ciudad de México, con más de 20 millones de habitantes en cada una. Buenos Aires, Río de Janeiro, Lima y Bogotá son mega-ciudades aún en desarrollo (Cepal, 2013). La presente tesis doctoral tiene como objetivo identificar y analizar los impactos que la dinámica de crecimiento urbano de una megaciudad induce sobre el com-portamiento de las componentes del ciclo hidrológico. La investigación desarro-llada incorpora el efecto del cambio climático de forma conjunta con el efecto del cambio de uso de suelo urbano. Para ello, se ha planteado una metodología de agregación de parámetros hidrológicos en superficies urbanas que se ha aplicado a la megaciudad de Bogotá, utilizando el modelo hidrológico TETIS y el modelo de cambios de uso de suelo LCM, bajo los escenarios oficiales de cambio climático vigentes en Colombia. Los resultados obtenidos muestran que el análisis conjunto de cambio de uso de suelo y cambio climático proporciona herramientas valiosas para comprender el comportamiento hidrológico de la cuenca en la que se sitúan las megaciudades y predecir su evolución futura. En el caso de la megaciudad de Bogotá se ha obser-vado que el mayor efecto en las componentes del ciclo hidrológico se produce por el cambio de usos de suelo, el cual se ve incrementado por las acciones inducidas por el cambio climático. La utilización de modelos numéricos que consideren todos estos aspectos es de especial relevancia a la hora de definir los planes, políti-cas y programas de desarrollo en entornos densamente urbanizados. / [CA] Actualment, el 54% de la població mundial viu a ciutats i s'espera que el 2050 aquest percentatge augmenti al 68% (UNDESA, 2019). Una part important d'a-questa població urbana es concentra en megaciutats, definides com a àrees urba-nes amb més de 10 milions d'habitants. A Amèrica Llatina, les principals mega-ciutats són Sao Paulo i Ciutat de Mèxic, amb més de 20 milions d'habitants a cadascuna. Buenos Aires, Rio de Janeiro, Lima i Bogotá són megaciutats encara en desenvolupament (Cepal, 2013). Aquesta tesi doctoral té com a objectiu identificar i analitzar els impactes que la dinàmica de creixement urbà d'una megaciutat indueix sobre el comportament dels components del cicle hidrològic. La investigació desenvolupada incorpora l'efecte del canvi climàtic de forma conjunta amb l'efecte del canvi d'ús de sòl urbà. Per això, s'ha plantejat una metodologia d'agregació de paràmetres hidrolò-gics en superfícies urbanes que s'ha aplicat a la megaciutat de Bogotà, utilitzant el model hidrològic TETIS i el model de canvis d'ús de sòl LCM, sota els escenaris oficials de canvi climàtic vigents a Colòmbia. Els resultats obtinguts mostren que l'anàlisi conjunta de canvi d'ús de sòl i canvi climàtic proporciona eines valuoses per comprendre el comportament hidrològic de la conca on se situen les megaciutats i predir-ne l'evolució futura. En el cas de la megaciutat de Bogotà s'ha observat que l'efecte més gran en les components del cicle hidrològic es produeix pel canvi d'usos de sòl, el qual es veu incrementat per les accions induïdes pel canvi climàtic. La utilització de models numèrics que considerin tots aquests aspectes és especialment rellevant a l'hora de definir els plans, polítiques i programes de desenvolupament en entorns densament urbanit-zats / [EN] Currently 54% of the world population lives in cities and it is expected that by 2050 this percentage will increase to 68% (UNDESA, 2019). An important part of this urban population is concentrated in megacities, defined as urban areas with more than 10 million inhabitants. In Latin America, the main megacities are Sao Paulo and Mexico City, with more than 20 million inhabitants. Buenos Aires, Rio de Janeiro, Lima and Bogotá are megacities still in development (Cepal, 2013). This doctoral thesis aims to identify and analyse the impacts that the dynamics of urban growth of a megacity induce on the behaviour of of the hydrological cycle components. The research carried out incorporates the effect of climate change together with the effect of urban land use change. To do this, a methodology for aggregating hydrological parameters in urban areas has been proposed. This methodology has been applied to the megacity of Bogotá, using the TETIS hydro-logical model and the LCM land use change model, under the official climate change scenarios in force in Colombia. Results obtained show that the joint analysis of land use change and climate change provides valuable tools to understand the hydrological behaviour of the basin in which the megacities are located and predict their future evolution. In the case of the megacity of Bogotá, it has been observed that the greatest effect on the components of the hydrological cycle is produced by the land use change, which is increased by the actions induced by climate change. The use of numeri-cal models that consider all these aspects is of special relevance when defining development plans, policies and programs in densely urbanized environments. / Romero Hernández, CP. (2022). Análisis del impacto del crecimiento de las megaciudades sobre el ciclo hidrológico bajo escenarios de cambio climático. Aplicación a la cuenca del río Bogotá (Colombia) [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/191025

As altas concentrações de aerossol fino e ultrafino observadas na atmosfera de áreas urbanas possuem um importante papel no clima local e global, devido sua interação com a radiação solar e também pela característica de formação dos núcleos de condensação de nuvens (CCN). Essas altas concentrações de partículas são responsáveis pela poluição do ar, atualmente considerada como o principal problema ambiental para a saúde pública no mundo, sendo relacionada ao câncer, doenças respiratórias, cardiovasculares e o mal de Alzheimer. Nesse contexto, o presente trabalho almejou a caracterização e discriminação de fontes poluentes para o aerossol atmosférico da cidade de São Paulo, utilizando os isótopos de Pb, Zn e Cu simultaneamente. Além disso, nesse estudo também foi realizada a avaliação do efeito das fontes locais e remotas para a ativação do CCN na atmosfera dessa região. São Paulo é a maior cidade da Região Metropolitana de São Paulo (RMSP), que por sua vez é a maior megacidade da América do Sul, e está entre as dez maiores do mundo. Amostras de aerossol urbano foram coletadas no inverno de 2013 e verão de 2014 na cidade de São Paulo. Ao mesmo tempo foram coletadas, em São Paulo e Cubatão, amostras de fontes poluentes importantes para a RMSP, como aquelas relacionadas ao tráfego veicular (combustíveis, pneu, poeira de rua e aerossol de túnel), construção civil (cimento) e à área industrial de Cubatão (aerossol). Adicionalmente, foram medidas no inverno de 2014 a concentrações de CCN, a distribuição por tamanho e a concentração em número das partículas. As determinações das composições isotópicas de Pb, Zn e Cu foram realizadas com um novo procedimento analítico, desenvolvido para a separação sequencial e purificação desses elementos, a partir de uma mesma solubilização de amostra, seguida pelas análises por espectrometria de massas empregando MC-ICP-MS e TIMS. A validação da exatidão e precisão desse procedimento foi realizada pela análise de amostras de materiais de referência, aerossol e fontes poluentes. Com base nos dados isotópicos das fontes poluentes, o tráfego veicular foi diferenciado da área industrial de Cubatão utilizando as assinaturas isotópicas de Pb dessas fontes, que demonstraram grande reprodutibilidade quando comparadas com estudos anteriores. Adicionalmente, as assinaturas isotópicas da poeira de rua e dos pneus foram discriminadas das emissões veiculares em um diagrama \'delta\'66ZnJMC vs 206Pb/207Pb. As assinaturas isotópicas de Zn e Cu da poeira de rua, emissões veiculares e cimento foram discriminadas em um diagrama \'delta\'65CuNIST vs \'delta\'66ZnJMC. As contribuições das fontes para as composições isotópicas de Pb e Zn, determinadas no aerossol da cidade de São Paulo, foram quantificadas utilizando modelos de mistura ternária. Nesses modelos o tráfego veicular (57 a 66%) foi predominante, seguido pela fonte não-caracterizada (25 a 32%), que mostrou uma assinatura isotópica de Pb e Zn específica observada nas duas campanhas. A área industrial de Cubatão apresentou contribuições de 11 a 17%, enquanto a poeira de rua contribuiu em até 18% para as assinaturas de Pb e Zn no aerossol. No inverno de 2014, o tráfego veicular local, o sal marinho e a queima de biomassa foram identificadas nas amostras de aerossol por análises de PMF, trajetórias de massas de ar e pelo sistema lidar. Também foram observados eventos de formação de aerossol secundário em 35% dos dias de medição. A ativação de CCN foi menor durante o dia em relação ao período noturno, sendo esse padrão associado principalmente as emissões do tráfego veicular local. Comparando os dias com contribuições das fontes remotas, pôde-se concluir que o material particulado proveniente do tráfego veicular durante o dia mostrou o maior efeito nos parâmetros de ativação de CCN em comparação com as fontes remotas de sal marinho e queima de biomassa. / Fine and ultrafine aerosol particles in high concentrations found in the atmosphere of urban areas, play an important role in local and global climate through interaction with solar radiation and cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) formation. These high concentrations of particles are related to the air pollution, which is the major environmental problem to the public health in the world, related with cancer, cardiovascular, respiratory and Alzheimer diseases. In this context, this study reports the simultaneous use of Pb, Zn and Cu to characterize and discriminate pollutant sources of the atmospheric aerosol from São Paulo City and evaluate the effect of local and remote sources to CCN activation in the atmosphere of this area. São Paulo is the main city of Metropolitan Area of São Paulo (MASP), which is the largest megacity in South America and rank among the ten most populous in the world. Urban aerosol samples were collected during winter of 2013 and summer of 2014 in the São Paulo city. At the same time, samples of the main pollutant sources of MASP, were sampled in São Paulo and Cubatão, such as vehicular traffic (fuels, tyres, road dust and tunnel aerosol), construction (cement) and aerosol from Cubatão industrial area. In addition, CCN concentrations, particle number concentrations and size distributions were measured during the winter of 2014 in the same sampling site. The Pb, Zn and Cu isotopic composition were determined by a new analytical procedure, developed to sequential separation of these elements, using a unique sample dissolution, followed by mass spectrometry analysis by MC-ICP-MS and TIMS. Analytical procedure validation of Accuracy and precision was carried with reference materials, aerosol and pollutant source samples. Based on isotopic data obtained on the pollutant sources, vehicular traffic was differentiated from Cubatão industrial area, using Pb isotopic fingerprints of this sources, which showed long term reproducibility when compared with previous studies. In addition, road dust and tyre isotopic signatures were discriminated from vehicular emissions in a \'delta\'66ZnJMC vs 206Pb/207Pb four isotope plot. Interestingly, Zn and Cu isotopic fingerprints of road dust, vehicular emission and cement was distinguished in a \'delta\'65CuNIST vs \'delta\'66ZnJMC four isotope plot. In order to quantify contributions of sources to Pb and Zn isotopic compositions determined in aerosol from São Paulo city, ternary mixing models were performed. In these models, vehicular traffic accounted to the main contribution (57 to 66%), followed by non-characterized source (25 to 32%), with a specific Pb and Zn isotopic signature identified in aerosol during the two campaigns. Cubatão industrial area showed contributions of 11 to 17%, whereas road dust contributed 18% to Pb and Zn isotopes in aerosol. In the winter of 2014, local vehicular traffic, sea salt and biomass burning were identified in aerosol by PMF, air masses trajectories and lidar analysis. Some new particle formation (NPF) events were identified on 35% of the sampling days. CCN activation was lower during the daytime compared to nightime periods, a pattern that was found to be associated mainly with local road-traffic emissions. Comparing the days with remote sources events, we concluded that particulate matter from local vehicular emissions during the daytime have a greater effect on CCN activation parameters than that from sea salt and biomass burning remote sources.

Until recently, organic particulate material was simply classified as either primary or secondary with the primary component being treated in models as nonvolatile and inert. This framework is used to simulate the organic aerosol formation, growth and composition in the eastern United States during the four seasons of the year. The model predictions are evaluated against daily average PM2.5 (particulate matter smaller than 2.5 μm) measurements taken throughout the eastern United States by the Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments (IMPROVE) and the Speciation Trends Network (STN) monitoring networks. The performance of the model in reproducing organic mass concentrations is average during all four seasons of the year. The agreement between the predicted and observed temporal profiles suggests a reasonable understanding and depiction in the model of the corresponding processes. However, this oversimplified view fails to explain the observed highly oxygenated nature of ambient organic aerosols (OA), the relatively small OA concentration gradients between large urban areas and their surroundings, and the concentrations of OA during periods of high photochemical activity. To address the above issues new primary and secondary organic aerosol modules have been added to a three dimensional chemical transport model (PMCAMx) based on recent smog chamber studies. The new modeling framework is based on the volatility basis-set approach: both primary and secondary organic components are assumed to be semivolatile and photochemically reactive and are distributed in logarithmically spaced volatility bins. The resulting PMCAMx-2008 was applied in Mexico City Metropolitan Area (MCMA) for approximately a week during April of 2003. The model predictions are compared with Aerosol Mass Spectrometry (AMS) observations and their Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) analysis. The final goal of this work is to provide information to the policy makers regarding the response of fine PM to emission controls. PMCAMx is used to investigate changes in PM2.5 concentrations in response to 50% emissions changes of oxides of nitrogen and anthropogenic volatile organic compounds during July 2001 and January 2002 in the Eastern United States. / Τα ατμοσφαιρικά οργανικά σωματίδια συνηθίζεται να χωρίζονται σε δυο κατηγορίες: πρωτογενή και δευτερογενή. Τα πρώτα εκπέμπονται κατευθείαν στην ατμόσφαιρα ενώ τα δευτερογενή δημιουργούνται με την μεταφορά μάζας αερίων χαμηλής πτητικότητας, που προκύπτουν από την οξείδωση πρωτογενών οργανικών αερίων, στα ατμοσφαιρικά σωματίδια. Ένα τρισδιάστατο χημικό μοντέλο (PMCAMx), βασιζόμενο σε αυτό το διαχωρισμό, χρησιμοποιήθηκε για την προσομοίωση της σύνθεσης και της μάζας των οργανικών σωματιδίων της ατμόσφαιρας, στις ανατολικές Ηνωμένες Πολιτείες της Αμερικής κατά τη διάρκεια των τεσσάρων εποχών του χρόνου. Οι προβλέψεις του μοντέλου αξιολογήθηκαν έναντι μετρήσεων που πραγματοποιήθηκαν από τα δίκτυα παρακολούθησης IMPROVE και STN στις ανατολικές ΗΠΑ. Η απόδοση του μοντέλου, όσον αφορά τον προσδιορισμό της συγκέντρωσης των οργανικών ενώσεων κατά τη διάρκεια όλων των εποχών είναι ιδιαίτερα ικανοποιητική. Ωστόσο, αν και οι προβλέψεις του μοντέλου για τη συγκέντρωση της οργανικής μάζας είναι ενθαρρυντικές, δεν είναι ξεκάθαρο εάν το μοντέλο προβλέπει τις σωστές τιμές για τους σωστούς λόγους. Συγκεκριμένα το μοντέλο δεν μπορεί να εξηγήσει την πολύ οξυγονωμένη χημική μορφή των ατμοσφαιρικών οργανικών σωματιδίων όπως αυτή αποτυπώθηκε σε μετρήσεις πεδίου. Για να αντιμετωπιστούν τα ανωτέρω ζητήματα αναπτύσσουμε μια νέα μέθοδο προσομοίωσης των διεργασιών σχηματισμού και χημικής γήρανσης των πρωτογενών και δευτερογενών οργανικών σωματιδίων της ατμόσφαιρας, στο τρισδιάστατο χημικό μοντέλο PMCAMx βασιζόμενοι σε πρόσφατα πειραματικά δεδομένα. Στο νέο αυτό πλαίσιο μοντελοποίησης τόσο τα πρωτογενή, όσο και τα δευτερογενή οργανικά συστατικά θεωρούνται ότι είναι ημιπτητικά και φωτοχημικά ενεργά και κατανέμονται λογαριθμικά σε ομάδες ενώσεων διαφορετικής πτητικότητας. Το βελτιωμένο PMCAMx (PMCAMx-2008) έχει εφαρμοστεί στην ευρύτερη περιοχή της πόλης του Μεξικού για περίπου μια βδομάδα τον Απρίλιο του 2003. Οι προβλέψεις του μοντέλου συγκρίνονται με μετρήσεις φασματογράφου μάζας αεροζόλ και άλλες μετρήσεις που πραγματοποιήθηκαν κατά τη διάρκεια της καμπάνιας MCMA-2003. Τέλος το PMCAMx έχει χρησιμοποιηθεί για να μελετηθούν διεξοδικά οι αλλαγές στη συγκέντρωση των οργανικών σωματιδίων διαμέτρου έως 2.5 μm που προκύπτουν από αλλαγές των εκπομπών NOx και VOCs κατά τη διάρκεια των μηνών του Ιουλίου 2001 και του Ιανουαρίου 2002 στις ανατολικές Ηνωμένες Πολιτείες της Αμερικής.