Les accumulateurs métal-air possèdent des densités d'énergie théoriques très élevées, et sont considérés comme de candidats idéaux en vue d'une rupture technologique dans les domaines des véhicules électriques et du stockage stationnaire à grande échelle. Un accumulateur métal-air opérant dans un électrolyte aqueux est peu coûteux, plus sûr, recyclable et a une faible empreinte environnementale. Ainsi, l'aboutissement de cette technologie naissante serait une alternative crédible aux accumulateurs Li-ion qui ont atteint un niveau de maturité technologique. Toutefois, le principal verrou scientifique à lever pour amener ces systèmes dans une réalité commerciale, concerne le développement d'électrodes à air bifonctionnelles. Cela nécessite la conception de catalyseurs peu coûteux et performants vis-à-vis des réactions de réduction (décharge) et de dégagement du dioxygène (charge). Les études ont porté sur la préparation de dérivés du graphène, de cobaltites et de matériaux composites carbone/oxyde. Des caractérisations physicochimiqes ont permis d'accéder à une meilleure compréhension des effets induits par leur composition, leurs propriétés électroniques et morphostructurales. Des expériences ont été conduites pour séparer les effets induits par la nature chimique du support carboné de ceux résultant de l'incorporation d'hétéroatomes ou des propriétés de surface des cobaltites. En outre, une partie de ce travail a été consacrée à l'étude de l'effet de la nature chimique de l'électrolyte (LiOH et K2ZnOH4) sur l'activité et la stabilité des nanoparticules de Co3O4 supportées sur oxyde de graphène réduit et bi-dopé à l'azote et au soufre lors l'électrocatalyse du dioxygène. / Rechargeable metal-air batteries exhibit high theoretical energy densities, and could be an ideal candidate for a technological breakthrough in the field of electric vehicles and large-scale stationary energy storage. Aqueous metal-air batteries are low-cost, safe, recyclable, and have environmental footprint. Thus, the outcome of this emerging technology could offer a credible alternative to Li-ion batteries, which are reaching a technology readiness level. However, the main scientific challenge to bring these systems into a commercial reality concerns the development of bifunctional air electrodes. This requires the design of low-cost, stable and efficient catalysts for both oxygen reduction (discharge) and oxygen evolution reactions (charge). The present work focuses on various investigations of electrocatalysts derived from graphene, cobaltites and carbon/oxide composites. The main objective was the better understanding of the effects induced by their composition, their electronic and morphostructural properties on the catalytic activity and stability of materials towards oxygen electrocatalysis. Experiments were thereby conducted in order to be able to separate effects induced by chemical nature of the carbon substrate from those resulted in the incorporation of heteroatoms or from the spinel cobaltites surface properties. In addition, a part of this study dealt with the impact of the chemical nature of the electrolyte (LiOH and K2ZnOH4) encountered in real aqueous alkali Li-air and Zn-air batteries on the activity and stability of Co3O4/N;S-RGO nanocomposites towards oxygen electrocatalysis.

A reação de redução de oxigênio (RRO) foi estudada em eletrocatalisadores formados por nanopartículas de óxidos puros e mistos de metais de transição de Mn, Co e Ni, além de estrutura tipo espinel, e por nanopartículas de Ag, Au e Ag3M (M= Au, Pt, Pd e Cu) suportadas em carbono Vulcan, em eletrólito alcalino. Os óxidos de metais de transição foram sintetizados por decomposição térmica de seus respectivos nitratos e as nanopartículas a base de prata e ouro foram sintetizadas por redução química com borohidreto. Os eletrocatalisadores foram caracterizados por Difratometria e Espectroscopia de Absorção de Raios X (somente para os óxidos de transição). Os materiais a base de óxidos de manganês, mostraram-se com alta atividade para a RRO, para os quais os resultados espectroscópicos in situ evidenciaram a ocorrência da redução do Mn(IV) para Mn(III), na região de início da RRO. Assim, as atividades eletrocatalíticas foram associadas à ocorrência da transferência de elétrons do Mn(III) para o O2. Entretanto, apresentaram forte desativação após ciclagem potenciodinâmica, o que foi associado à formação da fase Mn3O4, conforme indicado por difratometria de Raios X, após os experimentos eletroquímicos, que é eletroquimicamente inativa. Já o material formado pela estrutura do tipo espinel de MnCo2O4 apresentou alta atividade e estabilidade frente à ciclagem e à RRO. A alta atividade eletrocatalítica foi relacionada a ocorrência do par redox CoII/CoIII em maiores valores de potencial em relação ao CoOx e MnOx, devido a interações entre os átomos de Co e Mn no reticulo espinélico. Contrariamente ao observado nos óxidos com maior quantidade de manganês, o espinel mostrou-se altamente estável, o que foi associada à não alteração de sua estrutura no intervalo de potenciais que a RRO ocorre. Para os materiais bimetálicos a base de prata e ouro, os experimentos eletroquímicos indicaram maior atividade eletrocatalítica para o material de Ag3Au/C. Neste caso, a alta atividade foi associada a dois efeitos principais: (i) a um efeito sinergético, no qual os átomos de ouro atuam na região de ativação, favorecendo a adição de hidrogênio e os átomos vizinhos de prata proporcionam a quebra da ligação O-O, conduzindo a RRO pelo caminho de quatro elétrons por molécula de O2; (ii) ao aumento força da ligação Ag-O, devido à interação da Ag com o Au, resultando em maior atividade para a quebra da ligação O-O, aumentando a atividade da Ag para a RRO, em relação à atividade da Ag pura. Assim, a RRO apresentou menor sobrepotencial e maior número de elétrons em Ag3Au/C, quando comparado com as demais nanopartículas bimetálicas. / The oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) was studied on electrocatalysts composed by pure and mixed transition metal oxides of Mn, Co, and Ni, including spinel-like structures, and by Ag, Au, and Ag3M/C (M= Au, Pt, Pd e Cu) bimetallic nanoparticles, in alkaline electrolyte. The transition metal oxides were synthesized by thermal decomposition of their nitrates, and the silver and gold-based nanoparticles by chemical reduction using borohydride. The electrocatalysts were characterized by X-Ray Diffraction and X-Ray Absorption Spectroscopy (in the case of the metal oxides). The manganese-based oxide materials showed high activity for the ORR, in which the in situ spectroscopic results evidenced the Mn(IV) to Mn(III) reduction, in the range of the ORR onset. In this case, the electrocatalytic activities were correlated to the transfer of electron from Mn(III) to O2. However, they presented strong deactivation after several potentiodynamic cycles, which was ascribed to the formation of the electrochemically inactive phase of Mn3O4, as indicated by the XRD results, after the electrochemical experiments. On the other hand, the MnCo2O4 spinel-like material showed high activity and stability for the ORR. Its high electocatalytic activity was attributed to the CoII/CoIII redox pair, taking place at higher potentials, in relation to that of the CoOx e MnOx pure phases, due to the Co and Mn interactions in the spinel lattice. Contrarily to the behavior observed for the manganese-based materials, the spinel oxide presented high stability, which was ascribed to the non alteration of its crystallographic structure in the range of potentials tha the ORR takes place. For the Au and Ag-based materials, the electrochemical experiments indicated higher electrocatalytic activities for Ag3Au/C. In this case, its higher activity as associated to two main aspects: (i) to a synergetic effect, in which the gold atoms act in the activation region, facilitating the hydrogen addition, and the neighboring Ag atoms promoting the O-O bond breaking, leading the ORR to the 4-electrons pathway; (ii) to the increased Ag-O bond strength, due to the electronic interaction between Ag and the Au atoms, resulting in a faster O-O bond breaking, enhancing the electrocatalytic activity of the Ag atoms in the Ag3Au/C nanoparticle, in relation to that on the pure Ag. Therefore, the ORR presented lower overpotential and higher number of electrons in the Ag3Au/C electrocatalyst, when compared to the other investigated bimetallic nanoparticles.

Ce travail porte sur la synthèse et la caractérisation de membranes polymères échangeuses d'anions, destinées à la protection de l'électrode à air dans une batterie lithium-air (en vue d'une application pour véhicule électrique). Ces matériaux à architecture de réseaux interpénétrés de polymères (RIP) associent un réseau polyélectrolyte cationique hydrocarboné, la poly(épichlorohydrine) (PECH), à un réseau de polymère neutre qui peut être soit hydrocarboné, soit fluoré. Tout d'abord, la synthèse du réseau polyélectrolyte et son assemblage sur l'électrode à air ont été optimisés. Une première série de RIP associant ce réseau PECH à un réseau de poly(méthacrylate d'hydroxyéthyle) a été synthétisée. Une seconde série de matériaux combinant ce même réseau PECH à un réseau de polymère fluoré a été développée. L'ensemble de ces matériaux a été caractérisé, et pour chaque série de RIP, la méthode de synthèse et la composition ont été optimisées. Les membranes RIP présentent des propriétés améliorées par rapport au réseau simple de PECH. L'électrode à air protégée par ces nouvelles membranes échangeuses d'anions présente une stabilité améliorée dans les conditions de fonctionnement de la batterie lithium-air. Plus précisément, une durée de vie de 1000 h est obtenue lorsque l'électrode à air a été modifiée avec un RIP fluoré, soit une augmentation d'un facteur 20 de la durée de vie de l'électrode non modifiée. / This work focuses on the synthesis and characterization of polymer membranes to be used as anion exchange membranes for protection on an air electrode in a new lithium–air battery for electric vehicle. In these materials showing interpenetrating polymer networks (IPN) architecture, a hydrogenated cationic polyelectrolyte network, the poly(epichlorohydrin) (PECH), is associated with a neutral network, which can be either hydrogenated or fluorinated. First, the synthesis of the polyelectrolyte network and the membrane/electrode assembly were optimized. Second, a first IPN series associating the PECH network with a poly(hydroxyethyl methacrylate) network was synthesized. Third, the same PECH network was associated with a fluorinated polymer network. All the materials were characterized, and optimal synthesis methods as well as an optimal composition were determined for each association. The IPNs show improved properties compared with the single PECH network. The air electrode protected by these new anion exchange membranes shows improved stability in the working conditions of the lithium-air battery. Specifically, a lifetime of 1000 h was obtained when the electrode was modified with a fluorinated IPN, a 20-fold increase in the lifetime of the non-modified electrode.

La investigación y desarrollo de líquidos iónicos a temperatura ambiente (RTILsl va cobrando mayor importancia, como una necesidad de contar con materiales y sustancias químicas apropiados para diversos procesos químico-industriales, así como al creciente uso de ciertas fuentes alternativas de energía, más llevaderos con nuestro medio ambiente. En este artículo se hace una reseña sobre los líquidos iónicos, sus propiedades físicas y de transporte, aplicaciones presentes y futuras. / Room temperature ionic liquids (RTILs): Properties, applieations and future prospeetsResearch and development of room-temperatureionic I iquids (RTILs) is becoming more important, as a need to count with materials and chemical substances suitable for several processes in chemical industries, as well as for the growing use of alternative sources of energy, much more friendly with our environment. In this paper is presented a review on ionic liquids, their physical and transport properties, current and future applications

Global warming and depletion in fossil fuels have forced the society to search for alternate, clean sustainable energy sources. An obvious solution to the aforesaid problem lies in electrochemical energy storage systems like fuel cells and batteries. The desirable properties attributed to these devices like quick response, long life cycle, high round trip efficiency, clean source, low maintenance etc. have made them very attractive as energy storage devices. Compared to many advanced battery chemistries like nickel-metal hydride and lithium - ion batteries, metal-air batteries show several advantages like high energy density, ease of operation etc. The notable characteristics of metal - air batteries are the open structure with oxygen gas accessed from ambient air in the cathode compartment. These batteries rely on oxygen reduction and oxygen evolution reactions during discharging and charging processes. The efficiency of these systems is determined by the kinetics of oxygen reduction reaction. Platinum is the most preferred catalyst for many electrochemical reactions. However, high cost and stability issues restrict the use of Pt and hence there is quest for the development of stable, durable and active electrocatalysts for various redox reactions. The present thesis is directed towards exploring the electrocatalytic aspects of titanium carbonitride. TiCN, a fascinating material, possesses many favorable properties such as extreme hardness, high melting point, good thermal and electrical conductivity. Its metal-like conductivity and extreme corrosion resistance prompted us to use this material for various electrochemical studies. The work function as well as the bonding in the material can be tuned by varying the composition of carbon and nitrogen in the crystal lattice. The current study explores the versatility of TiCN as electrocatalyst in aqueous and non-aqueous media. One dimensional TiC0.7N0.3 nanowires are prepared by simple one step solvothermal method without use of any template and are characterized using various physicochemical techniques. The 1D nanostructures are of several µm size length and 40 ± 15 nm diameter (figure 1). Orientation followed by attachment of the primary particles results in the growth along a particular plane (figure 2). (a) (b) (c) Figure 1. (a) SEM images of TiC0.7N0.3 nanowires (b) TEM image and (c) High resolution TEM image showing the lattice fringes. (a) (b) (d) Figure 2. Bright field TEM images obtained at different time scales of reaction. (a) 0 h; (b) 12 h; (c) 72 h and (d) 144 h. The next aspect of the thesis discusses the electrochemical performance of TiC0.7N0.3 especially for oxygen reduction. Electrochemical oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) reveals that the nanowires possess high activity for ORR and involves four electron process leading to water as the product. The catalyst effectively converts oxygen to water with an efficiency of 85%. A comparison of the activity of different (C/N) compositions of TiCN is shown in figure 3. The composition TiC0.7N0.3 shows the maximum activity for the reaction. The catalyst is also very selective for ORR in presence of methanol and thus cross-over issue in fuel cells can be effectively addressed. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations also lead to the same composition as the best for electrocatalysis, supporting the experimental observations. Figure 3. Linear sweep voltammetric curves observed for different compositions of titanium carbonitride towards ORR. The next chapter deals with the use of TiC0.7N0.3 as air cathode for aqueous metal - air batteries. The batteries show remarkable performance in the gel- and in liquid- based electrolytes for zinc - air and magnesium - air batteries. A partial potassium salt of polyacrylic acid (PAAK) is used as the polymer to form a gel electrolyte. The cell is found to perform very well even at very high current densities in the gel electrolyte (figures 4 and 5). Figure 4 Photographs of different components of the gel - based zinc - air battery. (a) (b) Figure 5. a) Discharge curves at different current densities of 5, 20, 50 and 100 mA/cm2 for zinc-air system with TiC0.7N0.3 cathode b) Charge – discharge cycles at 50 mA/cm2 for the three electrode configuration with TiC0.7N0.3 nanowire for ORR and IrO2 for OER and Zn electrode (2h. cycle period). Similarly, the catalytic activity of TiC0.7N0.3 has also been explored in non-aqueous electrolyte. The material acts as a bifunctional catalyst for oxygen in non- aqueous medium as well. It shows a stable performance for more than 100 cycles with high reversibility for ORR and OER (figure 6). Li-O2 battery fabricated with a non-aqueous gel- based electrolyte yields very good output. (a) (b) (c) Figure 6. Galvanostatic charge –discharge cycles. (a) at 1 mA/cm2 (b) specific capacity as a function of no. of cycles (c) photographs of PAN-based gel polymer electrolyte. Another reaction of interest in non –aqueous medium is I-/I3-. redox couple. TiC0.7N0.3 nanowires show small peak to peak separation, low charge transfer resistance and hence high activity. The catalyst is used as a counter electrode in dye sensitized a solar cell that shows efficiencies similar to that of Pt, state of the art catalyst (figure 7). (a) (b) (c) Figure 7 (a) Cyclic voltammograms for I-/I3 - redox species on TiC0.7N0.3 nanowires (red), TiC0.7N0.3 particle (black) and Pt (blue). (b) Photocurrent density - voltage characteristics for DSSCs with different counter electrodes. TiC0.7N0.3 nanowire (black), TiC0.7N0.3 particle (blue), Pt (red). (c) Photograph of a sample cell. (a) (b) (c) (d) Figure 8 a) Comparison ORR activity for (i) NiTiO3(black), (ii) N-rGO (red), (iii) NiTiO3 – N-rGO (green) and (iv) Pt/C (blue) (b) Linear sweep voltammograms for OER observed on NiTiO3 – N-rGO composite (black), NiTiO3 (brown), N-rGO (blue), glassy carbon (red) in 0.5 M KOH. (c) Galvanostatic discharge curves of NiTiO3 – N-rGO as air electrode (d) Charge – discharge cycle at 5 mA/cm2 for the rechargeable battery with 10 min. cycle period. The last part of the thesis discusses about a ceramic oxide, nickel titanate. The electrocatalytic studies of the material towards ORR and OER reveal that the catalyst shows remarkable performance as a bifunctional electrode. A gel - based zinc - air battery fabricated with nickel titanate – reduced graphene oxide composite shows exceptional performance of 1000 charge-discharge cycles in the rechargeable mode (figure 8). Of course, the primary battery configuration works very well too The thesis contains seven chapters on the aspects mentioned above with summary and future perspectives given as the last chapter. An appendix based on TiN nanotubes and supercapacitor studies is given at the end.