Les instabilités fluides peuvent dégrader le confinement du plasma au sein des tokamaks. Étant données les échelles spatio-temporelles, on choisit les modèles fluides obtenus à partir de la dérivation des modèles cinétiques. On dérive plusieurs modèles hiérarchiques de la MagnétoHydroDynamique (MHD) et en particulier les modèles de la MHD réduite du Current Hole et de l'équilibre de Grad-Shafranov. Une des difficulté de l'ensemble de ces modèles est de respecter l'équation modélisant l'absence de monopôles magnétiques. Pour assurer cette condition en tout point du domaine, le champ magnétique est réécrit avec un potentiel vecteur. L'utilisation de potentiels fait apparaître des équations faisant intervenir des dérivées d'ordre supérieurs. La stratégie numérique développée est l'utilisation de la méthode des éléments finis avec des éléments C1 de Bell. Sur un maillage non structuré, ces éléments ont l'intérêt de présenter une base réduite définir exclusivement avec des variables aux noeuds du maillage. Les modèles de MHD réduite du Current Hole et de Grad-Shafranov ont été résolus avec ces éléments. La résolution du cas test de Grad-Shafranov avec les conditions de bords exactes a permis d'obtenir l'ordre optimale de 5. La résolution du système du Current Hole avec ces éléments, validée par l'obtention du paramètre η1/3, a permis l'observation de développement d'instabilités en dents de scies.

This dissertation investigates the effect of electromagnetic braking and gas injection on the fluid flow in a continuous casting slab mold numerically and makes verifications on basis of a small Liquid Metal Model for Continuous Casting of steel (mini-LIMMCAST). Numerical calculations were performed by means of the software package CFX with an implemented RANS-SST turbulence model. The non-isotropic nature of the MHD turbulence was taken into account by specific modifications of the turbulence model. The numerical results were validated by flow measurements at the mini-LIMMCAST facility. Numerical simulations disclose the damping effect on the flow closely depending on the wall conductance ratio. In addition, specific modifications of the turbulence model play a crucial role in reconstructing the peculiar phenomenon of an excitation of nonsteady, nonisotropic, large-scale flow perturbations caused by the application of the DC magnetic field.

The iron-group metals and alloys are of interest because of their excellent soft magnetic properties. They have found a wide application field in the storage technology, especially for reading/writing elements in the hard drive head, and in microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). Especially the CoFe system, which possesses the highest, among others, saturation magnetisation of 2.45 T and a relatively low coercivity of about 2×10^-5 T, is of interest. These properties are crucial for the further development in the storage technology. Electrodeposition is a very promising alternative to the physical vapour deposition techniques (PVD) to produce soft magnetic layers and microstructures. The advantage of electrodeposition in comparison to PVD processes is the fact that it is an inexpensive method. Moreover, electrodeposition is the most appropriate process for the writing head fabrication since it allows to deposit high aspect ratio layers with a thickness ranging from a few monolayers up to more than 1 um onto a complex geometry substrate. A superposition of an external magnetic field during the electrodeposition can affect the deposit properties. Mainly the morphology of the deposited layers is influenced. This is mostly caused by the Lorentz force driven convection, i.e. the magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) effect. Whilst the knowledge of uniform external magnetic field effects on the electrodeposition of single metals has been greatly improved during the past decade, an alloy deposition is still a challenging task. Due to a lack of understanding of mechanisms of a magnetic field impact on the deposition of CoFe alloys and their technological importance a detailed investigation is of demand. The aim of this work is to analyse in detail the effects induced by a homogeneous magnetic field with different strength and relative to the electrode surface orientation on the electrodeposition of thin CoFe alloy films of different composition. This study is divided into three major parts: an analysis of the electrochemical behaviour (1), nucleation and growth processes (2) and the determination of the morphology and the physical properties of the deposited layers (3). 1. A detailed analysis of the electrochemical processes is performed. The influence of the magnetic field with respect to its flux density and relative to the electrode surface orientation on the reactions rates has been investigated. A special attention has been given to the side reactions accompanying the metal reduction, i.e. the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). Which has a significant impact on the layer’s properties. It has been shown that the electrochemical reaction rates are improved in the parallel to the electrode magnetic field due to the classical MHD effect. On the contrary, in the perpendicular to the electrode magnetic field nearly no effect on the metal reduction is observed, whilst the HER rate is significantly increased. The reason of that is seen in the improved desorption of hydrogen bubbles from the electrode surface due to a localized convection in a bubble vicinity, the so called micro- MHD effect. Moreover, the additional convection introduced by a magnetic field, regardless of its relative to the electrode surface orientations, leads to a reduced interface pH value. This, in turn, results in an improved layer quality, i.e. the hydroxides precipitation is inhibited. 2. The nucleation and the very beginning of the layer growth are of particular importance for thin film deposition. Since the deposit properties are determined by these processes an extensive study of the very initial stages of electrocrystallisation is presented. This was performed by an analysis of the current density vs. time transients. It was found that the nucleation behaviour can be altered by a magnetic field. The changes in the nucleation behaviour have been studied on the basis of theoretical models by an current density-time transients analysis. Regardless of the electrolyte chemistry, the magnetic field strength, and its relative to the electrode orientation, similar features in the current density-time transients have been observed. The nucleation and growth are characterised by a layer-by-layer mode. The first nucleation and growth step at the very beginning of the potential step has been attributed to the 2D (most probably epitaxial) layer formation (up to a few monolayers), which was found unaffected by a magnetic field superposition. The 2D step is then followed by the next nucleation and growth step indicated by the occurrence of a maximum in the current density-time transients. This is attributed to the nucleation and 3D diffusion controlled growth and is altered by a magnetic field applied in the parallel-to-electrode configuration. The experimental dependencies have been examined by known theoretical models. This analysis revealed that the superposition of the parallel magnetic field leads to a retardation of the steady state nucleation rate (AN0) due to the MHD effect acting in the electrolyte. A qualitative model was proposed in order to explain this phenomenon. In contrast, the perpendicular to the electrode magnetic field does not change the nucleation behaviour. However, the growth mode of the layer is remarkably changed, i.e. a columnar growth is observed. 3. The magnetic field impact on the electrochemical reaction rates, on the desorption of hydrogen from the electrode surface, and on the nucleation behaviour has strong consequences for the resulting layer characteristics. This can be summarized as follows: • The most pronounced effect is noticed for the morphology of the layers. The quality of the layers deposited in a magnetic field, irrespective of its relative to the electrode orientation, is strongly improved. The reason of this is an enhanced desorption of hydrogen from the electrode surface. As a result large holes left by hydrogen bubbles observed for the layers deposited without a field disappear for the layers deposited under the influence of a magnetic field. The layers deposited under an influence of the parallel to the electrode magnetic field appear denser and more homogeneous than the ones obtained without a magnetic field. On the contrary, the layers deposited in the perpendicular to the electrode magnetic field appeared more diverse. The most remarkable effect has been observed for the layers deposited from the Fe and the CoFe(A) electrolyte in a perpendicular magnetic field where the grains tend to grow as separated columns in the direction of the magnetic field. A scaling analysis has revealed a smoothing effect of a parallel magnetic field manifested in a reduced value of the roughness exponent in comparison to the layers deposited without a magnetic field. On the contrary, the roughness exponent has increased for the layers obtained in the perpendicular to the electrode magnetic field, i.e. a roughening effect of the perpendicular magnetic field is observed. • No magnetic field effects neither on the crystal structure nor on the texture of the deposits have been observed. All layers irrespective of the deposition parameters develop a fibre texture. Nevertheless, the internal stress state of the deposited layers is affected by a magnetic field. A magnetic field applied during the deposition of alloy layers from buffered electrolytes, irrespective of its relative to the electrode orientation, reduces the internal stress of the layer. This effect is attributed to an improved desorption of hydrogen from the electrode surface, which is observed under the influence of a magnetic field. • The chemical composition of the deposited alloy layers, irrespective of the deposition parameters, is unchanged by magnetic fields. • The magnetic properties of the deposits are found to be affected by a magnetic field applied during the deposition. These effects are caused by microstructural changes induced by the magnetic field, i.e. the roughness of the layer, the internal stress state, and the chemical composition of the deposit. A good correlation between the coercivity and the roughness is found. Moreover, an in-plane magnetic anisotropy is observed in the alloy layers deposited under the influence of the parallel to the electrode magnetic field, where, according to the XRD investigations, isotropic properties were expected. The origin of this phenomenon is seen in a preferential same atom couples formation in the magnetic field direction. / Metalle und Legierungen der Eisengruppe sind von großem Interesse insbesondere wegen ihrer exzellenten weichmagnetischen Eigenschaften. Ein breites Anwendungsgebiet liegt in der Speichertechnologie, sie finden vorrangig Einsatz in Lese- und Schreibköpfen und in mikroelektromechanischen Systemen (MEMS). Besonders das CoFe-System, das u.a. die höchste Sättigungsmagnetisierung von 2,45 T bei einer relativ niedrigen Koerzitivfeldstärke von ca. 2×10^-5 T aufweist, ist interessant für zukünftige Entwicklungen in der Speichertechnologie. Im Vergleich zu physikalischen Abscheideverfahren, wie PVD (physical vapor deposition) ist die Elektrokristallisation eine einfache und preiswerte Alternative zur Herstellung von weichmagnetischen Schichten und Strukturen, die sich im Herstellungsprozess von Schreib-und Leseköpfen durchgesetzt hat. Es ist möglich Schichten und komplexe geometrische Strukturen mit einer Stärke von einigen Monolagen bis zu mehr als 1µm und in hohen Aspektverhältnissen abzuscheiden. Durch Überlagerung von externen Magnetfeldern während der Elektrodeposition können die Eigenschaften und insbesondere die Morphologie der Schichten signifikant beeinflusst werden. Die Ursache dafür besteht im Wesentlichen in der durch Lorentzkräfte angetriebenen Konvektion, die als magnetohydrodynamische Konvektion (MHD) bezeichnet wird. Während im letzten Jahrzehnt durch grundlegende Untersuchungen der Kenntnisstand bezüglich der elektrochemischen Abscheidung einzelner Metalle in überlagerten Magnetfeldern vertieft wurde, ist das Verständnis zum Mechanismus der Legierungsabscheidung wenig erforscht und eine Herausforderung. Es besteht kaum Kenntnis zum Mechanismus der CoFe Abscheidung unter dem Einfluss externer Magnetfelder und deren Bedeutung für technologische Prozesse. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es, den Einfluss homogener Magnetfelder unterschiedlicher Stärke und Orientierung bezüglich der Elektrodenoberfläche während der Elektrokristallisation von CoFe Legierungen unterschiedlicher Zusammensetzung zu untersuchen und die magnetfeldinduzierten Effekte detailliert und grundlegend zu analysieren. Die Arbeit ist in drei wesentliche Abschnitte gegliedert, (1) die Analyse des elektrochemischen Verhaltens, (2) die Untersuchung von Keimbildungs- und Wachstumsprozessen, (3) die Charakterisierung der Morphologie und der physikalischen Eigenschaften der Schichten. 1. Die elektrochemischen Prozesse und Abscheideraten wurden in Abhängigkeit von der magnetischen Flussdichte und Orientierung bezüglich der Elektrodenanordnung detailliert analysiert. Besondere Berücksichtigung fand die die Metallabscheidung begleitende Nebenreaktion, die Wasserstoffreduktion (HER), die signifikant die Eigenschaften der Schichten beeinflusst. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Rate der Metallabscheidung in einem Magnetfeld, welches parallel zur Elektrode ausgerichtet ist, erhöht wird, was auf den klassischen MHD-Effekt zurückzuführen ist, der im Elektrolyten eine Strömung generiert. Im Gegensatz dazu wurde in einem homogenen Magnetfeld das senkrecht auf die Probe gerichtet ist, nahezu kein Einfluss auf die Reduktion der Metallionen gefunden, während die HER-Reaktion signifikant erhöht wird. Die Ursache ist in einer beschleunigten Desorption der Wasserstoffblasen von der Elektrodenoberfläche zu sehen, die durch lokale Konvektion in Blasennähe hervorgerufen und als mikro-MHD Effekt bezeichnet wird. Darüber hinaus bewirkt die magnetfeldinduzierte Konvektion unabhängig von der Magnetfeldorientierung einen geringeren Anstieg des oberflächennahen pH-Wertes. Das wiederum führt zu einer verbesserten Schichtqualität, da die spontane Bildung von Hydroxiden inhibiert wird. 2. Die Keimbildung und der Beginn des Schichtwachstums sind von besonderer Bedeutung für die Elektrokristallisation dünner Schichten, da die Schichteigenschaften wesentlich durch diese Prozesse bestimmt werden. Die Initialschritte der Elektrokristallisation wurden im Detail untersucht und dargestellt. Die Analyse erfolgt auf der Grundlage von Stromdichte-Zeit-Transienten. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass das Keimbildungsverhalten durch ein überlagertes Magnetfeld beeinflusst wird. Unabhängig von der Zusammensetzung des Elektrolyten, der magnetischen Flussdichte und der Orientierung zur Elektrodenoberfläche wurden vergleichbare Stromdichte-Zeit-Verläufe beobachtet. Keimbildung und Wachstum können durch einen Layer-by-Layer Modus charakterisiert werden. Der erste Keimbildungs- und Wachstumsschritt, der unmittelbar nach dem Anlegen des Abscheidepotentials stattfindet, ist durch eine 2D Schichtbildung (wahrscheinlich epitaktisch) gekennzeichnet, die zur Ausbildung von einigen Monolagen führt. Dieser Schritt wird durch ein äußeres Magnetfeld nicht beeinflusst. Dem 2D-Schritt folgen weitere Keimbildungs- und Wachstumsschritte, die durch ein Maximum im Stromdichte-Zeit-Transienten gekennzeichnet sind. Das Verhalten ist auf Keimbildung und 3D diffusionskontrollierte Wachstumsprozesse zurückzuführen und wird durch ein Magnetfeld parallel zur Elektrodenoberfläche beeinflusst. Die experimentellen Ergebnisse wurden mit Hilfe bekannter theoretischer Modelle analysiert. Es wurde gezeigt, dass die Überlagerung eines parallel zur Oberfläche angeordneten Magnetdfeldes zu einer Verringerung der stationären Keimbildungsrate (AN0) führt, was ebenfalls auf die Wirkung des MHD-Effektes zurückzuführen ist. In der Arbeit wird ein qualitatives Modell für die Legierungsabscheidung in einem überlagerten homogenen Magnetfeld vorgeschlagen, das die beobachteten Phänomene erklärt. Im Gegensatz dazu wurde in einem senkrecht zur Elektrodenoberfläche ausgerichteten Magnetfeld kein Einfluss auf den Keimbildungs- und Wachstumsmechanismus anhand der Stromdichte-Zeit-Transienten festgestellt. Trotzdem wird eine stark veränderte Schichtmorphologie, die ein kolumnares Kornwachstum zeigt, beobachtet. 3. Der Einfluss eines äußeren Magnetfeldes auf die elektrochemischen Abscheideraten, auf die Desorption von Wasserstoff von der Elektrodenoberfläche und auf das Keimbildungsverhalten hat Konsequenzen auf die Schichteigenschaften. Diese können wie folgt zusammengefasst werden: • Der Einfluss eines äußeren Magnetfeldes auf die Schichtmorphologie ist auffallend. Die Qualität der Schichten, die in einem Magnetfeld abgeschieden wurden, wird unabhängig von der Orientierung des Magnetfeldes zur Elektrodenoberfläche deutlich verbessert. Als Ursache ist die beschleunigte Desorption der Wassersoffblasen von der Elektrodenoberfläche anzusehen. Ohne äußeres Magnetfeld verbleiben große Defekte in Form von Löchern auf der Oberfläche, die durch anhaftende Wasserstoffblasen verursacht werden, die in einem überlagerten Magnetfeld nicht beobachtet werden. Schichten, die in einem Magnetfeld parallel zur Elektrodenoberfläche erhalten werden, sind dichter und homogener. Im Gegensatz dazu haben Schichten in einem senkrecht zur Oberfläche abgeschiedenen Magnetfeld eine mannigfaltige Morphologie. Schichten aus Fe und CoFe Legierungen mit einem hohen Eisenanteil wachsen in Form von separaten Körnern und Säulen in Richtung des senkrecht ausgerichteten Magnetfeldes. Mittels Scaling-Analyse wurden Rauhigkeitsexponeten ermittelt, die den glättenden Effekt eines parallel zur Elektrode ausgerichteten Magnetfeldes auf die Schichtmorphologie bestätigen im Vergleich zu Schichten, die ohne Magnetfeld abgeschieden wurden. Die Rauhigkeitsexponenten für Schichten, die in einem senkrecht ausgerichteten Magnetfeld abgeschieden wurden, sind hingegen deutlich erhöht. • Weder auf die kristallographische Struktur noch auf die Textur der Schichten konnte ein Einfluss des überlagerten Magnetfeldes nachgewiesen werden. Alle Schichten unabhängig von den Abscheidebedingungen weisen eine Fasertextur auf. Trotzdem konnte ein signifikanter Einfluss des Magnetfeldes auf die innere Spannung der Schichten bestätigt werden. Insbesondere vermindert sich die innere Spannung von Schichten unabhängig von der Orientierung des angelegten Magnetfeldes, die aus einem gepufferten Elektrolyten abgeschieden wurden. Die Ursache ist auch hier auf die verbesserte Desorption von Wasserstoff zurückzuführen. • Die chemische Zusammensetzung der Schicht wird für die untersuchten Systeme durch ein Magnetfeld nicht verändert. • Die magnetischen Eigenschaften der Schichten werden beeinflußt, wenn während der Elektrokristallisation ein Magnetfeld überlagert wird. Diese Effekte werden durch die mikrostrukturellen Veränderungen, die durch ein überlagertes Magnetfeld induziert werden verursacht, d.h. durch die Rauhigkeit der Schicht, die innere Schichtspannung und die chemische Zusammensetzung. Es wird eine gute Korrelation zwischen der Koerzitivfeldstärke und Rauhigkeit der Schichten gefunden. Darüber hinaus wurde eine in-plane Anisotropie beobachtet, wenn während der Elektrokristallisation ein Magnetfeld parallel zur Elektrodenoberfläche angelegt wurde, obwohl aus röntgenographischen Untersuchungen isotrope Eigenschaften erwartet wurden. Als Ursache für dieses Phänomen wird eine bevorzugten Ausbildung und Ausrichtung von gleichatomigen Paaren im Magnetfeld angenommen.

Submitted by Cristhiane Guerra (cristhiane.guerra@gmail.com) on 2017-01-26T13:30:08Z No. of bitstreams: 1 arquivototal.pdf: 7840328 bytes, checksum: 74229a382309ea0fcf42de5818cc899a (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-01-26T13:30:08Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 arquivototal.pdf: 7840328 bytes, checksum: 74229a382309ea0fcf42de5818cc899a (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-08-25 / The aim of this work deals with the analysis of the mutual interaction between flow and magnetic fields that develops in a parallel-plate channel as soon as an external magnetic field is applied transversely to the plates. The fluid, electrically conductive, enters the channel under any velocity profile and will have its natural development within the channel changed by the applied magnetic field. With a coupled two-way interaction, the field will also be affected by the flow. The study of these interactions will be made from the two-dimensional version of the steady-state Navier-Stokes equations in the stream function formulation, coupled with the transport equation of the magnetic field. The solution of the governing equations will be obtained by the Generalized Integral Transform Technique (GITT). The results obtained for the velocity field, magnetic field and temperature field, as well as the associated scalar functions, are produced and compared with the literature on the basis of the main parameters of government: Reynolds number (Re), magnetic Reynolds number (Rem) and Hartmann number (Ha). In order to illustrate the consistency of the generalized integral transform technique, convergence analysis, are also performed and presented. / O objetivo do presente trabalho trata da análise da interação mútua escoamento/campo magnético que se desenvolve no interior de um canal de placas planas e paralelas ao se aplicar um campo magnético externo transversal. O fluido, eletricamente condutor, entra no canal sob um perfil qualquer de velocidade, e terá seu desenvolvimento natural afetado pelo campo magnético aplicado. Com uma interação acoplada de duas vias, o campo também será afetado pelo escoamento. O estudo dessas interações será efetuado a partir de uma formulação bidimensional das equações de Navier-Stokes, na formulação em função corrente, para escoamento em regime permanente, acoplada à equação de transporte do campo magnético. A solução das equações governantes será obtida através da Técnica da Transformada Integral Generalizada (GITT). Os resultados obtidos para o campo de velocidade e campo magnético, bem como suas funções escalares associadas, são produzidos e comparados aos da literatura em função dos principais parâmetros de governo: número de Reynolds (Re), número de Reynolds magnético (Rem) e número de Hartmann (Ha). Com o objetivo de ilustrar a consistência da técnica da transformada integral generalizada, análises de convergência são também efetuadas e apresentadas.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-17T14:58:04Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 MariaGOR_DISSERT.pdf: 1839301 bytes, checksum: 7f08c7ee57fc0bc1f8282eb165223c37 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010-11-12 / Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte / The main goal of the present work is related to the dynamics of the steady state, incompressible, laminar flow with heat transfer, of an electrically conducting and Newtonian fluid inside a flat parallel-plate channel under the action of an external and uniform magnetic field. For solution of the governing equations, written in the parabolic boundary layer and stream-function formulation, it was employed the hybrid, numericalanalytical, approach known as Generalized Integral Transform Technique (GITT). The flow is sustained by a pressure gradient and the magnetic field is applied in the direction normal to the flow and is assumed that normal magnetic field is kept uniform, remaining larger than any other fields generated in other directions. In order to evaluate the influence of the applied magnetic field on both entrance regions, thermal and hydrodynamic, for this forced convection problem, as well as for validating purposes of the adopted solution methodology, two kinds of channel entry conditions for the velocity field were used: an uniform and an non-MHD parabolic profile. On the other hand, for the thermal problem only an uniform temperature profile at the channel inlet was employed as boundary condition. Along the channel wall, plates are maintained at constant temperature, either equal to or different from each other. Results for the velocity and temperature fields as well as for the main related potentials are produced and compared, for validation purposes, to results reported on literature as function of the main dimensionless governing parameters as Reynolds and Hartman numbers, for typical situations. Finally, in order to illustrate the consistency of the integral transform method, convergence analyses are also effectuated and presented / O prop?sito do estudo desenvolvido nesse trabalho est? relacionado com a din?mica do escoamento incompress?vel, laminar, em regime permanente, com transfer?ncia de calor, de um fluido newtoniano condutor el?trico, no interior de um canal de placas planas paralelas, submetido a um campo magn?tico externo uniforme. Para a solu??o das equa??es de governo, modeladas atrav?s da formula??o parab?lica de camada limite em fun??o corrente, foi empregado o m?todo h?brido, num?rico-anal?tico, conhecido como T?cnica da Transformada Integral Generalizada (GITT). O escoamento analisado ? sustentando por um gradiente de press?o e assume-se que o campo magn?tico externo, aplicado na dire??o normal ao escoamento, permanece uniforme, muito maior do que quaisquer outros campos gerados em outras dire??es, n?o sendo, dessa forma, influenciado por nenhum efeito magn?tico interno. Para avaliar a influ?ncia do campo magn?tico sobre o desenvolvimento t?rmico e hidrodin?mico desse problema de convec??o for?ada, e tamb?m para fins de valida??o da metodologia de solu??o adotada, foram empregados dois tipos de condi??es de contorno para o campo de velocidade na entrada no canal: perfil uniforme e perfil parab?lico do escoamento sem campo magn?tico completamente desenvolvido. Para o problema t?rmico, por outro lado, empregou-se apenas o perfil uniforme de temperatura na entrada do canal e considerou-se que as placas se mant?m ? temperatura constante, iguais ou diferentes uma da outra. Resultados para os campos de velocidade, temperatura e potenciais correlatos s?o produzidos e comparados aos da literatura em fun??o dos principais par?metros de governo, a saber, n?mero de Reynolds, n?mero de Hartmann e par?metro el?trico, para algumas situa??es t?picas. Com o objetivo de ilustrar a consist?ncia da t?cnica da transformada integral generalizada, an?lises de converg?ncia s?o tamb?m efetuadas e apresentadas

A oxcarbazepina (OXC) é indicada como terapia adjuvante ou monoterapia no tratamento de crises epilépticas parciais ou crises tônico-clônicas generalizadas em adultos e crianças. A OXC sofre rápida eliminação pré-sistêmica com formação do metabólito ativo 10-hidroxicarbazepina (MHD), o qual possui como enantiômeros o R-(-)- e o S-(+)-MHD. A OXC e o MHD são substratos da glicoproteína-P (P-gp), que pode ser inibida pelo verapamil. O presente estudo avalia a influência do verapamil na farmacocinética e perfusão cerebral da OXC e dos enantiômeros do MHD em voluntários sadios. Os voluntários sadios (n=12) receberam em uma ocasião doses de 300 mg/12h de OXC e em outra ocasião doses de 300 mg/12h de OXC associadas com 80 mg/8h de verapamil. As amostras de sangue foram coletadas no estado de equilíbrio durante 12 horas e a avaliação da perfusão cerebral realizada utilizando a tomografia computadorizada por emissão de fóton único (SPECT) antes do início do tratamento e nos tempos 4, 6 ou 12h após a administração da OXC. As concentrações plasmáticas total e livre da OXC e dos enantiômeros do MHD foram avaliadas por LC-MS/MS. A análise farmacocinética não compartimental foi realizada com o programa WinNonlin e a farmacocinética populacional foi desenvolvida utilizando a modelagem não-linear de efeitos mistos com o programa NONMEM. Os limites de quantificação obtidos foram de 12,5 ng OXC/mL de plasma e 31,25 ng de cada enantiômero MHD/mL de plasma para a análise da concentração total, enquanto foi de 4,0 ng de OXC/mL de plasma e de 20,0 ng de cada enantiômero do MHD/mL de plasma para a determinação da concentração livre. Os coeficientes de variação obtidos nos estudos de precisão e a porcentagem de inexatidão inter e intra-ensaios foram inferiores a 15%, assegurando a reprodutibilidade e repetibilidade dos resultados. A análise farmacocinética não compartimental da OXC em monoterapia resultou nos seguintes parâmetros: concentração plasmática máxima (Cmax) de 1,35 ?g/mL como valor total e 0,32 ?g/mL como concentração livre em 1,0 h, área sob a curva concentração plasmática versus tempo (AUC0-12) de 3,98 ?g.h/mL e meia-vida de eliminação de 2,45 h, volume de distribuição aparente (Vss/F) de 352,17 L e clearance aparente (CLss/F) de 75,58 L/h. A disposição cinética do MHD é enantiosseletiva, com observação de maior proporção para o enantiômero S-(+)-MHD em relação ao R-(-)-MHD (razão AUC0-12 S-(+)/R-(-) de 4,26). A fração livre avaliada no tmax da OXC foi 0,26 para a OXC, 0,42 para o R-(-)-MHD e 0,38 para o S- (+)-MHD, mostrando enantiosseletividade na ligação às proteínas plasmáticas do MHD. O tratamento com o verapamil reduziu o tempo médio de residência (MRT) (4,71 vs 3,83 h) e Cmax como concentração livre (0,32 vs 0,53 ?g/mL) da OXC e aumentou os valores para ambos os enantiômeros do MHD de Cmax como valor total (2,60 vs 3,27 ?g/mL para o R-(-)- e 11,05 vs 11,94 ?g/mL para o S-(+)-MHD), Cmax como concentração livre (3,11 vs 4,14 ?g/mL para o S-(+)-MHD), Cmédia (2,11 vs 2,42 ?g/mL para o R-(-)- e 8,10 vs 9,07 ?g/mL para o S-(+)-MHD) e AUC0-12 (25,36 vs 29,06 ?g.h/mL para o R-(-)- e 97,19 vs 111,37 ?g.h/mL para o S-(+)-MHD). A ii farmacocinética populacional da OXC foi melhor descrita por modelo de dois compartimentos com eliminação de primeira ordem e com um conjunto de três compartimentos de trânsito para descrever o perfil de absorção da OXC. A disposição de ambos os enantiômeros do MHD foi caracterizada por modelo de um compartimento. Os valores de CLss/F estimados na monoterapia foram de 84,9 L/h para a OXC e de 2,0 L/h para ambos enantiômeros do MHD, enquanto os valores de Vss/F foram de 587 L para a OXC, 23,6 L para o R-(-)-MHD e 31,7 L para o S-(+)- MHD. Concluindo, a associação do verapamil aumentou a biodisponibilidade da OXC em 12% (farmacocinética populacional) e aumentou os valores de AUC de ambos os enantiômeros do metabólito MHD (farmacocinética não compartimental), o que está provavelmente relacionado com a inibição da P-gp no trato intestinal. A associação do verapamil aumentou as concentrações cerebrais preditas de ambos os enantiômeros do MHD em maior extensão do que aquelas observadas no plasma. As mudanças no fluxo sanguíneo cerebral (SPECTs realizados 6h após a administração da OXC) associadas à coadministração de verapamil provavelmente foram causadas pelo aumento dos níveis cerebrais de ambos os enantiômeros do MHD. A confirmação dessa observação requer um braço experimental adicional com SPECTs realizados também após a administração do verapamil em monoterapia. / Oxcarbazepine (OXC) is indicated as adjunctive therapy or monotherapy for the treatment of partial or generalized tonic-clonic seizures in adults and children. OXC undergoes rapid pre-systemic reduction with formation of the active metabolite 10- hydroxycarbazepine (MHD), which has the enantiomers R-(-)- and S-(+)-MHD. OXC and MHD are substrates of P-glycoprotein (P-gp), which can be inhibited by verapamil. The present study evaluates the influence of verapamil on the pharmacokinetics and cerebral perfusion of OXC and the MHD enantiomers in healthy volunteers. The healthy volunteers (n=12) received on one occasion doses of 300 mg/12h OXC and on another occasion they received doses of 300 mg/12h OXC associated with 80 mg/8h of verapamil. Blood samples were collected at steady state for 12 hours and the assessment of cerebral perfusion was performed using a single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) before the beginning of treatment and at times 4, 6 or 12 hours after OXC administration. The total and free plasma concentrations of OXC and MHD enantiomers were assessed by LC-MS/MS. The non-compartmental pharmacokinetics analysis was performed using the WinNonlin program, and population pharmacokinetics was developed using nonlinear mixed effects modelling with NONMEM.The limits of quantification obtained were 12.5 ng/mL plasma for OXC and 31.25 ng of each MHD enantiomer/mL plasma for total concentration analysis, while it was 4.0 ng OXC/mL plasma and 20.0 ng of each MHD enantiomer/mL plasma for the free concentration determination. The coefficients of variation obtained in studies of accuracy and the percentage of inaccuracy inter and intra-assay were less than 15%, ensuring the result reproducibility and repeatability. The non-compartmental pharmacokinetic analysis of OXC in monotherapy treatment, resulted in the following parameters: maximum plasma concentration (Cmax) of 1.35 ?g/mL as total concentration and 0.32 mg/mL as free concentration in 1.0 h, area under the plasma concentration vs time curve (AUC0-12) was 3.98 ?g.h/mL, half-life of 2.45 h, apparent volume of distribution (Vss/F) of 352.17 L and the apparent clearance (CLSS/F) of 75.58 L/h. The MHD kinetic disposition is enantioselective, with observation of a greater proportion of the S-(+)-MHD enantiomer compared to R-(-)-MHD (ratio AUC0-12 S-(+)/R-(-) of 4.26). The free fraction measured in the tmax of OXC was 0.26 for OXC, 0.42 for R-(-)-MHD and 0.38 for S-(+)-MHD, showing enantioselectivity in the plasma protein binding of MHD. Verapamil treatment reduced the mean residence time (MRT) (4.71 vs 3.83 h) and Cmax (0.26 vs 0.31 ?g/mL) as free concentration for OXC and increased the both MHD enantiomers values of Cmax (2.60 vs 3.27 ?g/mL for R-(-)- and 11.94 vs 11.05 ?g/mL for S-(+)-MHD) as total concentration, Cmax (3.11 vs 4,14 ?g/mL for S- (+)-MHD) as free concentration, Cavg (2.11 vs 2.42 ?g/mL for R-(-)- and 8.10 vs 9.07 ?g/mL for S-(+)-MHD) and AUC0-12 (25.36 vs 29.06 ?g.h/mL for R-(-)- and 97.19 vs 111.37 ?g.h/mL for S-(+)-MHD). The population pharmacokinetics of oxcarbazepine was best described by a two-compartment model with first-order elimination and a iv set of three transit compartments to describe the absorption profile of the parent compound. The disposition of both MHD enantiomers was characterised by onecompartment model. The CLss/F estimates in monotherapy were 84.9 L/h for OXC and 2.0 L/h for both MHD enantiomers, whereas the values of Vss/F were 587 L for OXC, 23.6 L for R-(-)-MHD and 31.7 L for S-(+)-MHD. In conclusion, verapamil coadministration increased the OXC bioavailability in 12% (population pharmacokinetics) and increased the AUC of both metabolite MHD enantiomers (non-compartmental pharmacokinetics), which is probably related to the inhibition of P-gp in the intestinal tract. Verapamil co-administration increased the predicted brain concentrations of both MHD enantiomers in a greater extent than those observed in plasma. Changes in cerebral blood flow (SPECTs performed 6h after administration of OXC) associated with co-administration of verapamil were probably caused by an increase in brain levels of both MHD enantiomers. Confirmation of this observation requires additional experimental arm with SPECTs also performed after administration of verapamil in monotherapy.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-03-15T19:35:54Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 MARIA VICTORIA GUTIERREZ ESCATE.pdf: 5448060 bytes, checksum: e181f68864eaef84743b2ff0d9d12abe (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-06-18 / Fundação de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo / Sympathetic solar flares are events occurring nearly simultaneously at distinct active regions with physical connection between them. Two flares that occurred on March 8, 2011 in active regions NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) 11163 (N17W91) and AR 11165 (S20W91) is being studied. The larger flare occurred in the Southern region and was preceded by a smaller flare in the Northern region, about 5 minutes before. Both events were observed by RHESSI. The first explosion was detected by SST in the AR of north hemisphere, in two stages. There are also EUV SDO high cadence images that exhibit a distinct rapid flash coinciding with the SST burst as well as clear large scale magnetic connections between the two active regions. Three possible flare triggering agents from the Northern region towards the Southern region are being investigated: (a) hydrodynamic waves along the large coronal interconnecting magnetic structure, (b) surface Moreton-like shock waves, (c) plasma echoes. / Explosões solares simpatéticas são eventos que ocorrem quase simultaneamente, em regiões ativas distintas. Este trabalho apresenta o estudo de duas explosões solares que ocorreram no dia 8 de março de 2011, nas regiões ativas NOAA 11163 (N17W91) e 11165 (S20W91), entendidas como um evento simpatético característico. A maior explosão ocorreu na região sul, precedida por uma explosão menor na região norte, 5 minutos antes. Ambas detecções foram observadas em raios-X duros pelo satélite RHESSI. A primeira explosão também foi detectada pelo SST na RA do hemisfério norte. Imagens do SDO/AIA em EUV de alta cadência exibem um flash rápido e distinto, coincidente com a detecção do SST. As observações mostram que existem conexões magnéticas em grande escala entre as duas regiões ativas. Isso nos permitiu estudar três possíveis agentes de ativação entre as duas regiões ativas, sendo investigados, então, os seguinte mecanismos de ativação: (i) ondas hidrodinâmicas, ao longo da grande estrutura magnética coronal; (ii) ondas de choque do tipo Moreton, e, (iii) eco de plasma.

Neste trabalho apresentamos o estudo da possivilidade de melhores regimes para o uso dos experimentos de aquecimento e geracao de corrente e fluxo de plasma no tokamak TCABR. Apresentamos um estudo dos efeitos de rotacao de plasma em baixa frequencia (low-frequency (LF)), penetração de campo eletromagnético, absorção e forças ponderomotoras no “Tokamak Chauffage Alfvén Brésilien” (TCABR) com ênfase na faixa de frequências de 0, 5–10, 0kHz. Os campos de LF são dirigidos pelo limitador magnético ergódico (ergodic magnetic limiter (EML)) no TCABR. Foi feito um estudo analítico das ondas de Alfvén e ressonância usando modelos simples. Um estudo num´erico tembém foi realizado utilizando três códigos, quais sejam, o código cinético toroidal, o código cilíndrico e o código ALTOK. / In this work we present the study of the determination the best regimes and parameters¶for the heating experiments and current generation and plasma flow in the tokamak TCABR. Study of effects of plasma rotation in low frequency (LF), field penetration, absorption and ponderomotive forces in “Tokamak Chauffage Alfvén Brésilien” (TCABR)is investigated with emphasis in the frequency range of 0, 5–10, 0kHz. The fields of LF are driven by the ergodic magnetic limiter (EML) in TCABR. A qualitative analytical study of the Alfvén waves and their resonances is performed using simple models. A numeric study was carried out using through three codes, called the kinetic totoidal code, the cylindrical code and the ALTOK code.

In this thesis we investigated two major issues in astrophysical flows: the transport of magnetic fields in highly conducting fluids in the presence of turbulence, and the turbulence evolution and turbulent dynamo amplification of magnetic fields in collisionless plasmas. The first topic was explored in the context of star-formation, where two intriguing problems are highly debated: the requirement of magnetic flux diffusion during the gravitational collapse of molecular clouds in order to explain the observed magnetic field intensities in protostars (the so called \"magnetic flux problem\") and the formation of rotationally sustained protostellar discs in the presence of the magnetic fields which tend to remove all the angular momentum (the so called \"magnetic braking catastrophe\"). Both problems challenge the ideal MHD description, usually expected to be a good approximation in these environments. The ambipolar diffusion, which is the mechanism commonly invoked to solve these problems, has been lately questioned both by observations and numerical simulation results. We have here investigated a new paradigm, an alternative diffusive mechanism based on fast magnetic reconnection induced by turbulence, termed turbulent reconnection diffusion (TRD). We tested the TRD through fully 3D MHD numerical simulations, injecting turbulence into molecular clouds with initial cylindrical geometry, uniform longitudinal magnetic field and periodic boundary conditions. We have demonstrated the efficiency of the TRD in decorrelating the magnetic flux from the gas, allowing the infall of gas into the gravitational well while the field lines migrate to the outer regions of the cloud. This mechanism works for clouds starting either in magnetohydrostatic equilibrium or initially out-of-equilibrium in free-fall. We estimated the rates at which the TRD operate and found that they are faster when the central gravitational potential is higher. Also we found that the larger the initial value of the thermal to magnetic pressure ratio (beta) the larger the diffusion process. Besides, we have found that these rates are consistent with the predictions of the theory, particularly when turbulence is trans- or super-Alfvénic. We have also explored by means of 3D MHD simulations the role of the TRD in protostellar disks formation. Under ideal MHD conditions, the removal of angular momentum from the disk progenitor by the typically embedded magnetic field may prevent the formation of a rotationally supported disk during the main protostellar accretion phase of low mass stars. Previous studies showed that an enhanced microscopic diffusivity of about three orders of magnitude larger than the Ohmic diffusivity would be necessary to enable the formation of a rotationally supported disk. However, the nature of this enhanced diffusivity was not explained. Our numerical simulations of disk formation in the presence of turbulence demonstrated the efficiency of the TRD in providing the diffusion of the magnetic flux to the envelope of the protostar during the gravitational collapse, thus enabling the formation of rotationally supported disks of radius ~ 100 AU, in agreement with the observations. The second topic of this thesis has been investigated in the framework of the plasmas of the intracluster medium (ICM). The amplification and maintenance of the observed magnetic fields in the ICM are usually attributed to the turbulent dynamo action which is known to amplify the magnetic energy until close equipartition with the kinetic energy. This is generally derived employing a collisional MHD model. However, this is poorly justified a priori since in the ICM the ion mean free path between collisions is of the order of the dynamical scales, thus requiring a collisionless-MHD description. We have studied here the turbulence statistics and the turbulent dynamo amplification of seed magnetic fields in the ICM using a single-fluid collisionless-MHD model. This introduces an anisotropic thermal pressure with respect to the direction of the local magnetic field and this anisotropy modifies the MHD linear waves and creates kinetic instabilities. Our collisionless-MHD model includes a relaxation term of the pressure anisotropy due to the feedback of the mirror and firehose instabilities. We performed 3D numerical simulations of forced transonic turbulence in a periodic box mimicking the turbulent ICM, assuming different initial values of the magnetic field intensity and different relaxation rates of the pressure anisotropy. We showed that in the high beta plasma regime of the ICM where these kinetic instabilities are stronger, a fast anisotropy relaxation rate gives results which are similar to the collisional-MHD model in the description of the statistical properties of the turbulence. Also, the amplification of the magnetic energy due to the turbulent dynamo action when considering an initial seed magnetic field is similar to the collisional-MHD model, particularly when considering an instantaneous anisotropy relaxation. The models without any pressure anisotropy relaxation deviate significantly from the collisional-MHD results, showing more power in small-scale fluctuations of the density and velocity field, in agreement with a significant presence of the kinetic instabilities; however, the fluctuations in the magnetic field are mostly suppressed. In this case, the turbulent dynamo fails in amplifying seed magnetic fields and the magnetic energy saturates at values several orders of magnitude below the kinetic energy. It was suggested by previous studies of the collisionless plasma of the solar wind that the pressure anisotropy relaxation rate is of the order of a few percent of the ion gyrofrequency. The present study has shown that if this is also the case for the ICM, then the models which best represent the ICM are those with instantaneous anisotropy relaxation rate, i.e., the models which revealed a behavior very similar to the collisional-MHD description. / Nesta tese, investigamos dois problemas chave relacionados a fluidos astrofísicos: o transporte de campos magnéticos em plasmas altamente condutores na presença de turbulência, e a evolução da turbulência e amplificação de campos magnéticos pelo dínamo turbulento em plasmas não-colisionais. O primeiro tópico foi explorado no contexto de formação estelar, onde duas questões intrigantes são intensamente debatidas na literatura: a necessidade da difusão de fluxo magnético durante o colapso gravitacional de nuvens moleculares, a fim de explicar as intensidades dos campos magnéticos observadas em proto-estrelas (o denominado \"problema do fluxo magnético\"), e a formação de discos proto-estelares sustentados pela rotação em presença de campos magnéticos, os quais tendem a remover o seu momento angular (a chamada \"catástrofe do freamento magnético\"). Estes dois problemas desafiam a descrição MHD ideal, normalmente empregada para descrever esses sistemas. A difusão ambipolar, o mecanismo normalmente invocado para resolver estes problemas, vem sendo questionada ultimamente tanto por observações quanto por resultados de simulações numéricas. Investigamos aqui um novo paradigma, um mecanismo de difusão alternativo baseado em reconexão magnética rápida induzida pela turbulência, que denominamos reconexão turbulenta (TRD, do inglês turbulent reconnection diffusion). Nós testamos a TRD através de simulações numéricas tridimensionais MHD, injetando turbulência em nuvens moleculares com geometria inicialmente cilíndrica, permeadas por um campo magnético longitudinal e fronteiras periódicas. Demonstramos a eficiência da TRD em desacoplar o fluxo magnético do gás, permitindo a queda do gás no poço de potencial gravitacional, enquanto as linhas de campo migram para as regiões externas da nuvem. Este mecanismo funciona tanto para nuvens inicialmente em equilíbrio magneto-hidrostático, quanto para aquelas inicialmente fora de equilíbrio, em queda livre. Nós estimamos as taxas em que a TRD opera e descobrimos que são mais rápidas quando o potencial gravitacional é maior. Também verificamos que quanto maior o valor inicial da razão entre a pressão térmica e magnética (beta), mais eficiente é o processo de difusão. Além disto, também verificamos que estas taxas são consistentes com as previsões da teoria, particularmente quando a turbulência é trans- ou super-Alfvénica. Também exploramos por meio de simulações MHD 3D a influência da TRD na formação de discos proto-estelares. Sob condições MHD ideais, a remoção do momento angular do disco progenitor pelo campo magnético da nuvem pode evitar a formação de discos sustentados por rotação durante a fase principal de acreção proto-estelar de estrelas de baixa massa. Estudos anteriores mostraram que uma super difusividade microscópica aproximadamente três ordens de magnitude maior do que a difusividade ôhmica seria necessária para levar à formação de um disco sustentado pela rotação. No entanto, a natureza desta super difusividade não foi explicada. Nossas simulações numéricas da formação do disco em presença de turbulência demonstraram a eficiência da TRD em prover a diffusão do fluxo magnético para o envelope da proto-estrela durante o colapso gravitacional, permitindo assim a formação de discos sutentados pela rotação com raios ~ 100 UA, em concordância com as observações. O segundo tópico desta tese foi abordado no contexto dos plasmas do meio intra-aglomerado de galáxias (MIA). A amplificação e manutenção dos campos magnéticos observados no MIA são normalmente atribuidas à ação do dínamo turbulento, que é conhecidamente capaz de amplificar a energia magnética até valores próximos da equipartição com a energia cinética. Este resultado é geralmente derivado empregando-se um modelo MHD colisional. No entanto, isto é pobremente justificado a priori, pois no MIA o caminho livre médio de colisões íon-íon é da ordem das escalas dinâmicas, requerendo então uma descrição MHD não-colisional. Estudamos aqui a estatística da turbulência e a amplificação por dínamo turbulento de campos magnéticos sementes no MIA, usando um modelo MHD não-colisional de um único fluido. Isto indroduz uma pressão térmica anisotrópica com respeito à direção do campo magnético local. Esta anisotropia modifica as ondas MHD lineares e cria instabilidades cinéticas. Nosso modelo MHD não-colisional inclui um termo de relaxação da anisotropia devido aos efeitos das instabilidades mirror e firehose. Realizamos simulações numéricas 3D de turbulência trans-sônica forçada em um domínio periódico, mimetizando o MIA turbulento e considerando diferentes valores iniciais para a intensidade do campo magnético, bem como diferentes taxas de relaxação da anisotropia na pressão. Mostramos que no regime de plasma com altos valores de beta no MIA, onde estas instabilidades cinéticas são mais fortes, uma rápida taxa de relaxação da anisotropia produz resultados similares ao modelo MHD colisional na descrição das propriedades estatísticas da turbulência. Além disso, a amplificação da energia mangética pela ação do dínamo turbulento quando consideramos um campo magnético semente, é similar ao modelo MHD colisional, particularmente quando consideramos uma relaxação instantânea da anisotropia. Os modelos sem qualquer relaxação da anisotropia de pressão mostraram resultados que se desviam significativamente daqueles do MHD colisional, mostrando mais potências nas flutuações de pequena escala da densidade e velocidade, em concordância com a presença significativa das instabilidades cinéticas nessas escalas; no entanto, as flutuações do campo magnético são, em geral, suprimidas. Neste caso, o dínamo turbulento também falha em amplificar campos magnéticos sementes e a energia magnética satura em valores bem abaixo da energia cinética. Estudos anteriores do plasma não-colisional do vento solar sugeriram que a taxa de relaxação da anisotropia na pressão é da ordem de uma pequena porcentagem da giro-frequência dos íons. O presente estudo mostrou que, se este também é o caso para o MIA, então os modelos que melhor representam o MIA são aqueles com taxas de relaxação instantâneas, ou seja, os modelos que revelaram um comportamento muito similar à descrição MHD colisional.

The iron-group metals and alloys are of interest because of their excellent soft magnetic properties. They have found a wide application field in the storage technology, especially for reading/writing elements in the hard drive head, and in microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). Especially the CoFe system, which possesses the highest, among others, saturation magnetisation of 2.45 T and a relatively low coercivity of about 2×10^-5 T, is of interest. These properties are crucial for the further development in the storage technology. Electrodeposition is a very promising alternative to the physical vapour deposition techniques (PVD) to produce soft magnetic layers and microstructures. The advantage of electrodeposition in comparison to PVD processes is the fact that it is an inexpensive method. Moreover, electrodeposition is the most appropriate process for the writing head fabrication since it allows to deposit high aspect ratio layers with a thickness ranging from a few monolayers up to more than 1 um onto a complex geometry substrate. A superposition of an external magnetic field during the electrodeposition can affect the deposit properties. Mainly the morphology of the deposited layers is influenced. This is mostly caused by the Lorentz force driven convection, i.e. the magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) effect. Whilst the knowledge of uniform external magnetic field effects on the electrodeposition of single metals has been greatly improved during the past decade, an alloy deposition is still a challenging task. Due to a lack of understanding of mechanisms of a magnetic field impact on the deposition of CoFe alloys and their technological importance a detailed investigation is of demand. The aim of this work is to analyse in detail the effects induced by a homogeneous magnetic field with different strength and relative to the electrode surface orientation on the electrodeposition of thin CoFe alloy films of different composition. This study is divided into three major parts: an analysis of the electrochemical behaviour (1), nucleation and growth processes (2) and the determination of the morphology and the physical properties of the deposited layers (3). 1. A detailed analysis of the electrochemical processes is performed. The influence of the magnetic field with respect to its flux density and relative to the electrode surface orientation on the reactions rates has been investigated. A special attention has been given to the side reactions accompanying the metal reduction, i.e. the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). Which has a significant impact on the layer’s properties. It has been shown that the electrochemical reaction rates are improved in the parallel to the electrode magnetic field due to the classical MHD effect. On the contrary, in the perpendicular to the electrode magnetic field nearly no effect on the metal reduction is observed, whilst the HER rate is significantly increased. The reason of that is seen in the improved desorption of hydrogen bubbles from the electrode surface due to a localized convection in a bubble vicinity, the so called micro- MHD effect. Moreover, the additional convection introduced by a magnetic field, regardless of its relative to the electrode surface orientations, leads to a reduced interface pH value. This, in turn, results in an improved layer quality, i.e. the hydroxides precipitation is inhibited. 2. The nucleation and the very beginning of the layer growth are of particular importance for thin film deposition. Since the deposit properties are determined by these processes an extensive study of the very initial stages of electrocrystallisation is presented. This was performed by an analysis of the current density vs. time transients. It was found that the nucleation behaviour can be altered by a magnetic field. The changes in the nucleation behaviour have been studied on the basis of theoretical models by an current density-time transients analysis. Regardless of the electrolyte chemistry, the magnetic field strength, and its relative to the electrode orientation, similar features in the current density-time transients have been observed. The nucleation and growth are characterised by a layer-by-layer mode. The first nucleation and growth step at the very beginning of the potential step has been attributed to the 2D (most probably epitaxial) layer formation (up to a few monolayers), which was found unaffected by a magnetic field superposition. The 2D step is then followed by the next nucleation and growth step indicated by the occurrence of a maximum in the current density-time transients. This is attributed to the nucleation and 3D diffusion controlled growth and is altered by a magnetic field applied in the parallel-to-electrode configuration. The experimental dependencies have been examined by known theoretical models. This analysis revealed that the superposition of the parallel magnetic field leads to a retardation of the steady state nucleation rate (AN0) due to the MHD effect acting in the electrolyte. A qualitative model was proposed in order to explain this phenomenon. In contrast, the perpendicular to the electrode magnetic field does not change the nucleation behaviour. However, the growth mode of the layer is remarkably changed, i.e. a columnar growth is observed. 3. The magnetic field impact on the electrochemical reaction rates, on the desorption of hydrogen from the electrode surface, and on the nucleation behaviour has strong consequences for the resulting layer characteristics. This can be summarized as follows: • The most pronounced effect is noticed for the morphology of the layers. The quality of the layers deposited in a magnetic field, irrespective of its relative to the electrode orientation, is strongly improved. The reason of this is an enhanced desorption of hydrogen from the electrode surface. As a result large holes left by hydrogen bubbles observed for the layers deposited without a field disappear for the layers deposited under the influence of a magnetic field. The layers deposited under an influence of the parallel to the electrode magnetic field appear denser and more homogeneous than the ones obtained without a magnetic field. On the contrary, the layers deposited in the perpendicular to the electrode magnetic field appeared more diverse. The most remarkable effect has been observed for the layers deposited from the Fe and the CoFe(A) electrolyte in a perpendicular magnetic field where the grains tend to grow as separated columns in the direction of the magnetic field. A scaling analysis has revealed a smoothing effect of a parallel magnetic field manifested in a reduced value of the roughness exponent in comparison to the layers deposited without a magnetic field. On the contrary, the roughness exponent has increased for the layers obtained in the perpendicular to the electrode magnetic field, i.e. a roughening effect of the perpendicular magnetic field is observed. • No magnetic field effects neither on the crystal structure nor on the texture of the deposits have been observed. All layers irrespective of the deposition parameters develop a fibre texture. Nevertheless, the internal stress state of the deposited layers is affected by a magnetic field. A magnetic field applied during the deposition of alloy layers from buffered electrolytes, irrespective of its relative to the electrode orientation, reduces the internal stress of the layer. This effect is attributed to an improved desorption of hydrogen from the electrode surface, which is observed under the influence of a magnetic field. • The chemical composition of the deposited alloy layers, irrespective of the deposition parameters, is unchanged by magnetic fields. • The magnetic properties of the deposits are found to be affected by a magnetic field applied during the deposition. These effects are caused by microstructural changes induced by the magnetic field, i.e. the roughness of the layer, the internal stress state, and the chemical composition of the deposit. A good correlation between the coercivity and the roughness is found. Moreover, an in-plane magnetic anisotropy is observed in the alloy layers deposited under the influence of the parallel to the electrode magnetic field, where, according to the XRD investigations, isotropic properties were expected. The origin of this phenomenon is seen in a preferential same atom couples formation in the magnetic field direction. / Metalle und Legierungen der Eisengruppe sind von großem Interesse insbesondere wegen ihrer exzellenten weichmagnetischen Eigenschaften. Ein breites Anwendungsgebiet liegt in der Speichertechnologie, sie finden vorrangig Einsatz in Lese- und Schreibköpfen und in mikroelektromechanischen Systemen (MEMS). Besonders das CoFe-System, das u.a. die höchste Sättigungsmagnetisierung von 2,45 T bei einer relativ niedrigen Koerzitivfeldstärke von ca. 2×10^-5 T aufweist, ist interessant für zukünftige Entwicklungen in der Speichertechnologie. Im Vergleich zu physikalischen Abscheideverfahren, wie PVD (physical vapor deposition) ist die Elektrokristallisation eine einfache und preiswerte Alternative zur Herstellung von weichmagnetischen Schichten und Strukturen, die sich im Herstellungsprozess von Schreib-und Leseköpfen durchgesetzt hat. Es ist möglich Schichten und komplexe geometrische Strukturen mit einer Stärke von einigen Monolagen bis zu mehr als 1µm und in hohen Aspektverhältnissen abzuscheiden. Durch Überlagerung von externen Magnetfeldern während der Elektrodeposition können die Eigenschaften und insbesondere die Morphologie der Schichten signifikant beeinflusst werden. Die Ursache dafür besteht im Wesentlichen in der durch Lorentzkräfte angetriebenen Konvektion, die als magnetohydrodynamische Konvektion (MHD) bezeichnet wird. Während im letzten Jahrzehnt durch grundlegende Untersuchungen der Kenntnisstand bezüglich der elektrochemischen Abscheidung einzelner Metalle in überlagerten Magnetfeldern vertieft wurde, ist das Verständnis zum Mechanismus der Legierungsabscheidung wenig erforscht und eine Herausforderung. Es besteht kaum Kenntnis zum Mechanismus der CoFe Abscheidung unter dem Einfluss externer Magnetfelder und deren Bedeutung für technologische Prozesse. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es, den Einfluss homogener Magnetfelder unterschiedlicher Stärke und Orientierung bezüglich der Elektrodenoberfläche während der Elektrokristallisation von CoFe Legierungen unterschiedlicher Zusammensetzung zu untersuchen und die magnetfeldinduzierten Effekte detailliert und grundlegend zu analysieren. Die Arbeit ist in drei wesentliche Abschnitte gegliedert, (1) die Analyse des elektrochemischen Verhaltens, (2) die Untersuchung von Keimbildungs- und Wachstumsprozessen, (3) die Charakterisierung der Morphologie und der physikalischen Eigenschaften der Schichten. 1. Die elektrochemischen Prozesse und Abscheideraten wurden in Abhängigkeit von der magnetischen Flussdichte und Orientierung bezüglich der Elektrodenanordnung detailliert analysiert. Besondere Berücksichtigung fand die die Metallabscheidung begleitende Nebenreaktion, die Wasserstoffreduktion (HER), die signifikant die Eigenschaften der Schichten beeinflusst. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Rate der Metallabscheidung in einem Magnetfeld, welches parallel zur Elektrode ausgerichtet ist, erhöht wird, was auf den klassischen MHD-Effekt zurückzuführen ist, der im Elektrolyten eine Strömung generiert. Im Gegensatz dazu wurde in einem homogenen Magnetfeld das senkrecht auf die Probe gerichtet ist, nahezu kein Einfluss auf die Reduktion der Metallionen gefunden, während die HER-Reaktion signifikant erhöht wird. Die Ursache ist in einer beschleunigten Desorption der Wasserstoffblasen von der Elektrodenoberfläche zu sehen, die durch lokale Konvektion in Blasennähe hervorgerufen und als mikro-MHD Effekt bezeichnet wird. Darüber hinaus bewirkt die magnetfeldinduzierte Konvektion unabhängig von der Magnetfeldorientierung einen geringeren Anstieg des oberflächennahen pH-Wertes. Das wiederum führt zu einer verbesserten Schichtqualität, da die spontane Bildung von Hydroxiden inhibiert wird. 2. Die Keimbildung und der Beginn des Schichtwachstums sind von besonderer Bedeutung für die Elektrokristallisation dünner Schichten, da die Schichteigenschaften wesentlich durch diese Prozesse bestimmt werden. Die Initialschritte der Elektrokristallisation wurden im Detail untersucht und dargestellt. Die Analyse erfolgt auf der Grundlage von Stromdichte-Zeit-Transienten. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass das Keimbildungsverhalten durch ein überlagertes Magnetfeld beeinflusst wird. Unabhängig von der Zusammensetzung des Elektrolyten, der magnetischen Flussdichte und der Orientierung zur Elektrodenoberfläche wurden vergleichbare Stromdichte-Zeit-Verläufe beobachtet. Keimbildung und Wachstum können durch einen Layer-by-Layer Modus charakterisiert werden. Der erste Keimbildungs- und Wachstumsschritt, der unmittelbar nach dem Anlegen des Abscheidepotentials stattfindet, ist durch eine 2D Schichtbildung (wahrscheinlich epitaktisch) gekennzeichnet, die zur Ausbildung von einigen Monolagen führt. Dieser Schritt wird durch ein äußeres Magnetfeld nicht beeinflusst. Dem 2D-Schritt folgen weitere Keimbildungs- und Wachstumsschritte, die durch ein Maximum im Stromdichte-Zeit-Transienten gekennzeichnet sind. Das Verhalten ist auf Keimbildung und 3D diffusionskontrollierte Wachstumsprozesse zurückzuführen und wird durch ein Magnetfeld parallel zur Elektrodenoberfläche beeinflusst. Die experimentellen Ergebnisse wurden mit Hilfe bekannter theoretischer Modelle analysiert. Es wurde gezeigt, dass die Überlagerung eines parallel zur Oberfläche angeordneten Magnetdfeldes zu einer Verringerung der stationären Keimbildungsrate (AN0) führt, was ebenfalls auf die Wirkung des MHD-Effektes zurückzuführen ist. In der Arbeit wird ein qualitatives Modell für die Legierungsabscheidung in einem überlagerten homogenen Magnetfeld vorgeschlagen, das die beobachteten Phänomene erklärt. Im Gegensatz dazu wurde in einem senkrecht zur Elektrodenoberfläche ausgerichteten Magnetfeld kein Einfluss auf den Keimbildungs- und Wachstumsmechanismus anhand der Stromdichte-Zeit-Transienten festgestellt. Trotzdem wird eine stark veränderte Schichtmorphologie, die ein kolumnares Kornwachstum zeigt, beobachtet. 3. Der Einfluss eines äußeren Magnetfeldes auf die elektrochemischen Abscheideraten, auf die Desorption von Wasserstoff von der Elektrodenoberfläche und auf das Keimbildungsverhalten hat Konsequenzen auf die Schichteigenschaften. Diese können wie folgt zusammengefasst werden: • Der Einfluss eines äußeren Magnetfeldes auf die Schichtmorphologie ist auffallend. Die Qualität der Schichten, die in einem Magnetfeld abgeschieden wurden, wird unabhängig von der Orientierung des Magnetfeldes zur Elektrodenoberfläche deutlich verbessert. Als Ursache ist die beschleunigte Desorption der Wassersoffblasen von der Elektrodenoberfläche anzusehen. Ohne äußeres Magnetfeld verbleiben große Defekte in Form von Löchern auf der Oberfläche, die durch anhaftende Wasserstoffblasen verursacht werden, die in einem überlagerten Magnetfeld nicht beobachtet werden. Schichten, die in einem Magnetfeld parallel zur Elektrodenoberfläche erhalten werden, sind dichter und homogener. Im Gegensatz dazu haben Schichten in einem senkrecht zur Oberfläche abgeschiedenen Magnetfeld eine mannigfaltige Morphologie. Schichten aus Fe und CoFe Legierungen mit einem hohen Eisenanteil wachsen in Form von separaten Körnern und Säulen in Richtung des senkrecht ausgerichteten Magnetfeldes. Mittels Scaling-Analyse wurden Rauhigkeitsexponeten ermittelt, die den glättenden Effekt eines parallel zur Elektrode ausgerichteten Magnetfeldes auf die Schichtmorphologie bestätigen im Vergleich zu Schichten, die ohne Magnetfeld abgeschieden wurden. Die Rauhigkeitsexponenten für Schichten, die in einem senkrecht ausgerichteten Magnetfeld abgeschieden wurden, sind hingegen deutlich erhöht. • Weder auf die kristallographische Struktur noch auf die Textur der Schichten konnte ein Einfluss des überlagerten Magnetfeldes nachgewiesen werden. Alle Schichten unabhängig von den Abscheidebedingungen weisen eine Fasertextur auf. Trotzdem konnte ein signifikanter Einfluss des Magnetfeldes auf die innere Spannung der Schichten bestätigt werden. Insbesondere vermindert sich die innere Spannung von Schichten unabhängig von der Orientierung des angelegten Magnetfeldes, die aus einem gepufferten Elektrolyten abgeschieden wurden. Die Ursache ist auch hier auf die verbesserte Desorption von Wasserstoff zurückzuführen. • Die chemische Zusammensetzung der Schicht wird für die untersuchten Systeme durch ein Magnetfeld nicht verändert. • Die magnetischen Eigenschaften der Schichten werden beeinflußt, wenn während der Elektrokristallisation ein Magnetfeld überlagert wird. Diese Effekte werden durch die mikrostrukturellen Veränderungen, die durch ein überlagertes Magnetfeld induziert werden verursacht, d.h. durch die Rauhigkeit der Schicht, die innere Schichtspannung und die chemische Zusammensetzung. Es wird eine gute Korrelation zwischen der Koerzitivfeldstärke und Rauhigkeit der Schichten gefunden. Darüber hinaus wurde eine in-plane Anisotropie beobachtet, wenn während der Elektrokristallisation ein Magnetfeld parallel zur Elektrodenoberfläche angelegt wurde, obwohl aus röntgenographischen Untersuchungen isotrope Eigenschaften erwartet wurden. Als Ursache für dieses Phänomen wird eine bevorzugten Ausbildung und Ausrichtung von gleichatomigen Paaren im Magnetfeld angenommen.