A determinação dos íons Cd(II) e Zn(II) foi realizada em amostras de águas estuarinas por voltametria de redissolução anódica utilizando microeletrodo de fibra de carbono (raio =3 µm). O filme de bismuto foi depositado in situ, simultaneamente com os analitos em microeletrodo sob as condições otimizadas. O intervalo linear da curva de calibração para ambos os íons metálicos foi 0,5 -10,0 nmol L-1 e os limites de detecção de Cd(II) e Zn(II) foram estimados em 17 e 52 pmol L-1, respectivamente. A precisão dos resultados fornecidos empregando-se o microeletrodo de filme de bismuto (BiFME) foi avaliada pela realização de experimento com uma amostra certificada e teste de recuperação. A utilidade da metodologia foi demonstrada aplicando o BiFME para determinar baixas concentrações de Cd(II) e de Zn(II) em água do estuário. / A bismuth-film electrode for use in anodic stripping voltammetry was employed in order to quantify Cd(II) and Zn(II) in estuarine water samples. The bismuth film was deposited in situ simultaneously with the analytes onto a carbon fiber disc microelectrode (radius = 3 µm). Under the optimised conditions, calibration plots for both metallic ions were obtained in the range 0.5 to 10.0 nmol L-1 and the limits of detection for Cd(II) and Zn(II) were estimated as 17 and 52 pmol L-1, respectively. The accuracy of the results supplied by the bismuth film microelectrode (BiFME) was assessed by performing experiment with a certified sample and addition-recovery experiments. The usefulness of the methodology was demonstrated by applying the BiFME to measuring the Cd(II) and Zn(II) content in estuarine water.

With increasing amounts of data being collected in various fields of neuroscience, there is a growing need for robust techniques for the analysis of this information. This thesis focuses on the evaluation and development of quantitative frameworks for the analysis and classification of neuronal data from a variety of contexts. Firstly, I investigate methods for analysing spontaneous neuronal network activity recorded on microelectrode arrays (MEAs). I perform an unbiased evaluation of the existing techniques for detecting ‘bursts’ of neuronal activity in these types of recordings, and provide recommendations for the robust analysis of bursting activity in a range of contexts using both existing and adapted burst detection methods. These techniques are then used to analyse bursting activity in novel recordings of human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neuronal networks. Results from this review of burst analysis methods are then used to inform the development of a framework for characterising the activity of neuronal networks recorded on MEAs, using properties of bursting as well as other common features of spontaneous activity. Using this framework, I examine the ontogeny of spontaneous network activity in in vitro neuronal networks from various brain regions, recorded on both single and multi-well MEAs. I also develop a framework for classifying these recordings according to their network type, based on quantitative features of their activity patterns. Next, I take a multi-view approach to classifying neuronal cell types using both the morphological and electrophysiological features of cells. I show that a number of multi-view clustering algorithms can more reliably differentiate between neuronal cell types in two existing data sets, compared to single-view clustering techniques applied to either the morphological or electrophysiological ‘view’ of the data, or a concatenation of the two views. To close, I examine the properties of the cell types identified by these methods.

A presente tese versa sobre resultados obtidos na aplicação da microscopia eletroquímica de varredura no estudo de sistemas micelares e no estudo de bicamadas lipídicas. Os estudos envolvendo sistemas micelares foram realizados utilizando a SECM no modo substrato-gerador/microeletrodo-coletor. Neste modo de operação, um microeletrodo de platina foi posicionado próximo a um substrato de platina e utilizado para monitorar espécies eletrogeradas nesse substrato. Conhecendo o tempo necessário para a espécie eletrogerada difundir do substrato até o microeletrodo, foi possível aplicar a equação de Einstein-Smoluchowski para determinar o coeficiente de difusão da espécie eletroativa e de micelas de surfactantes. Como as micelas não são eletroativas, o ferroceno eletrogerado no substrato e incorporado nas micelas foi utilizado como sonda para a estimativa do tempo de difusão. Os resultados obtidos para o surfactante brometo de tetradecil trimetil amônio (C14TABr) corroboram dados reportados na literatura, demonstrando a utilidade da metodologia proposta no estudo de sistema micelares. Também foram realizados experimentos envolvendo micelas do surfactante cloreto de 1-alquil-3-metilimidazólio, CxMelmCl (x = 10, 12, 14, 16) e com os resultados obtidos foi possível evidenciar o efeito da cadeia carbônica no coeficiente de difusão das espécies. Os experimentos envolvendo a permeação de substâncias através de bicamadas lipídicas foram realizados em duas etapas. Os primeiros ensaios foram realizados utilizando modelo de membrana semipermeável (papel celofane) com o intuito de verificar a aplicabilidade da SECM no monitoramento de espécies eletroativas que permeiam através da membrana. Na segunda etapa, apresentou-se metodologia para a obtenção de microfuros em folhas de poliestireno utilizados para a formação das bicamadas lipídicas, assim como detalhes sobre a construção da célula de medidas utilizadas nos experimentos de permeação. Foram realizados experimentos envolvendo o uso de bicamadas lipídicas planas obtidas pelo método de Miller preparadas com lecitina de soja. Esses experimentos foram realizados com o intuito de avaliar a estabilidade e para verificar a permeabilidade de algumas substâncias nas bicamadas formadas. Os experimentos de permeação foram realizados posicionando um microeletrodo próximo à membrana, com posterior detecção amperométrica da espécie eletroativa que atravessa a membrana. / This thesis shows results on the use of scanning electrochemical microscopy in the study of micellar systems and lipid bilayers. Studies involving micellar systems were performed by using SECM in the substrate-generator/tip-collector mode. In this operation mode a platinum microelectrode was positioned close to a platinum substrate and used to monitor electrogenerated species on this surface. Taking into account the time for the electrogenerated species to diffuse from the substrate to the microelectrode, the diffusion coefficient of the electroactive species and of the micelles can be calculated by applying the Einstein-Smoluchowski equation. As micelles are not electroactive, ferrocene electrogenerated on the substrate and incorporated into the micelles was used as a probe to estimate the diffusion time. The results obtained for tetradecyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (C14TABr) corroborate those reported in the literature, demonstrating the applicability of the proposed methodology in the study of micellar systems. Experiments with micelles obtained from 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium, CxMelmCl (x = 10, 12, 14, 16) chloride surfactants were also performed and results showed the effect of the carbon chain in the diffusion coefficient. Experiments involving the permeation of chemical species through lipid bilayers were carried out in two steps. A membrane model (cellophane) was preliminary used in order to investigate the possibility of using SECM as a tool for monitoring the permeation of electroactive species through the membrane. Then, a methodology for obtaining microholes in polystyrene sheets used to form lipid bilayers was presented, as well as details about the design of an electrochemical cell used in the permeation experiments. Experiments involving the use of planar lipid bilayers obtained by the method of Miller prepared using soybean lecithin were performed. These experiments were carried out in order to evaluate the stability and to check the permeation of some substances through the prepared bilayers. Permeation experiments were performed by placing the microelectrode close to the membrane with subsequent amperometric detection of any electroactive species that cross the membrane

Ce travail de thèse présente une nouvelle classe de microélectrodes de fibres de nanotubes de carbone (NT). Celles-ci sont réalisées par un filage en voie humide autorisant l’inclusion d’additifs au sein des fibres afin d’adapter leur formulation. Ainsi, le développement d’électrodes incluant la bilirubine oxydase (BOD) pour biopile enzymatique a permis d’obtenir un haut courant de réduction à l’aide d’un transfert d’électrons direct entre BOD et NT. Egalement, des actionneurs électromécaniques incluant une faible quantité de PVA réticulé sont proposés. De telles fibres génèrent une grande contrainte et présentent un temps de réponse court lorsqu’une faible tension leur est appliquée. La mobilité des NT les uns par rapport aux autres au sein de celles-ci a été réduite. Cette dernière est présente dans tout actionneur en NT et génère du fluage et une relaxation de contrainte de ces matériaux limitant ainsi leurs performances. Ces travaux ouvrent de nombreuses voies pour de nouvelles microtechnologies de conversion d’énergie, notamment appliquées au médical ou dans la micro-robotique. / This PhD work presents a new class of carbon nanotubes (NT) fibers microelectrodes. These fibers are produced by a wet spinning process which enables the inclusion of additives within the fibers in order to adapt their formulation. Thus, new microelectrodes for enzymatic biofuel cells that comprise bilirubin oxidase (BOD) have been realized in a one step process and enable a direct electron transfer process between the enzyme and NT at a high potential with a high reduction current. Furthermore, we also developed new NT microfibers including a small quantity of chemically crosslinked PVA for electrochemical actuators. They generate a large stress and a short response time when stimulated by a low voltage in an aqueous electrolyte. Moreover, the CNT mobility within these fibers is greatly reduced. The latter is present in any CNT actuator and induces creep and stress relaxation of these material prohibiting the possibility to obtain high actuating performances. The present results open routes towards the development of novel technologies for energy conversion potentially useful in micro-devices, biomedical applications and micro-robotics.

abstract: Intracellular voltage recordings from single neurons in vitro and in vivo have been fundamental to our understanding of neuronal function. Conventional electrodes and associated positioning systems for intracellular recording in vivo are large and bulky, which has largely restricted their use to single-channel recording from anesthetized animals. Further, intracellular recordings are very cumbersome, requiring a high degree of skill not readily achieved in a typical laboratory. This dissertation presents a robotic, head-mountable, MEMS (Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems) based intracellular recording system to overcome the above limitations associated with form-factor, scalability and highly skilled and tedious manual operations required for intracellular recordings. This system combines three distinct technologies: 1) novel microscale, polycrystalline silicon-based electrode for intracellular recording, 2) electrothermal microactuators for precise microscale navigation of the electrode and 3) closed-loop control algorithm for autonomous movement and positioning of electrode inside single neurons. First, two distinct designs of polysilicon-based microscale electrodes were fabricated and tested for intracellular recordings. In the first approach, tips of polysilicon microelectrodes were milled to nanoscale dimensions (<300 nm) using focused ion beam (FIB) to develop polysilicon nanoelectrodes. Polysilicon nanoelectrodes recorded >1.5 mV amplitude, positive-going action potentials and synaptic potentials from neurons in the abdominal ganglion of Aplysia Californica. In the second approach, polysilicon microelectrodes were integrated with miniaturized glass micropipettes filled with electrolyte to fabricate glass-polysilicon microelectrodes. These electrodes consistently recorded high fidelity intracellular potentials from neurons in the abdominal ganglion of Aplysia Californica (Resting Potentials < -35 mV, Action Potentials > 60 mV) as well as the rat motor cortex (Resting Potentials < -50 mV). Next, glass-polysilicon microelectrodes were coupled with microscale electrothermal actuators and controller for autonomous intracellular recordings from single neurons in the abdominal ganglion. Consistent resting potentials (< -35 mV) and action potentials (> 60 mV) were recorded after each successful penetration attempt with the controller and microactuated glass-polysilicon microelectrodes. The success rate of penetration and quality of recordings achieved using electrothermal microactuators were comparable to that of conventional positioning systems. Finally, the feasibility of this miniaturized system to obtain intracellular recordings from single neurons in the motor cortex of rats in vivo is also demonstrated. The MEMS-based system offers significant advantages: 1) reduction in overall size for potential use in behaving animals, 2) scalable approach to potentially realize multi-channel recordings and 3) a viable method to fully automate measurement of intracellular recordings. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Biomedical Engineering 2018

No presente trabalho foi utilizada a microscopia eletroquímica de varredura (SECM) com o objetivo de adquirir informações sobre o processo de corrosão do aço inoxidável 304 em diferentes condições experimentais. Inicialmente, foram realizados ensaios de corrosão com a técnica de voltametria cíclica e acompanhamento do potencial de circuito aberto ao longo do tempo, obtendo-se informações sobre o potencial de circuito aberto e o potencial de pite. Nestes ensaios foram utilizadas soluções de NaCl 0,1 mol L-1 e 0,5 mol L-1 na ausência e presença de O2. Os experimentos com a microscopia eletroquímica de varredura (SECM) foram realizados nas mesmas condições experimentais, em um primeiro momento polarizando o substrato no potencial de circuito aberto específico obtido em cada solução e, em seguida, polarizando-o em 0,5 V (vs Ag/AgCl(KCl sat.)). Trabalhou-se em regiões nas quais havia indícios da formação de pites metaestáveis, monitorando-se o aparecimento de íons Fe(II). Para a realização destes experimentos, o microeletrodo foi polarizado em 0,6V, potencial onde a oxidação de Fe(II) a Fe(III) ocorre em larga extensão. A formação e o rompimento da camada de proteção foram observados de modo generalizado e local. A formação de pite metaestáveis para a solução de NaCl 0,5 mol L-1 também foi notada, sendo esse fato confirmado pela presença de tais pites numa imagem e subsequente desaparecimento na imagem seguinte. / Scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) was used in order to acquire information on the corrosion process of stainless steel 304 at different experimental conditions. Corrosion tests were initially carried out with cyclic voltammetry technique and by monitoring the open circuit potential over time to obtain information about the corrosion potential and the pitting potential. Experiments were performed in 0.1 mol L-1 and 0.5 mol L-1 NaCl solutions, in the absence and presence of O2. Scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) experiments were performed under the same experimental conditions, by polarizing the substrate at specific open circuit potential of each solution and then polarizing it at 0.5V (vs. Ag / AgCl (KCl sat.)). Experiments were carried out at regions where there were indications of the formation of metastable pits, by monitoring the appearance of Fe(II) ions. The microelectrode was polarized at 0.6V, a potential value where the oxidation of Fe (II) to Fe (III) occurs to a large extent. The formation and the disruption of the protective layer were noticed widely and locally. The formation of metastable pits in 0.5 mol L-1 NaCl solutions was also noted by analysing such pits in an image and their further disappearance in the following image.

abstract: A direct Magnetic Resonance (MR)-based neural activity mapping technique with high spatial and temporal resolution may accelerate studies of brain functional organization. The most widely used technique for brain functional imaging is functional Magnetic Resonance Image (fMRI). The spatial resolution of fMRI is high. However, fMRI signals are highly influenced by the vasculature in each voxel and can be affected by capillary orientation and vessel size. Functional MRI analysis may, therefore, produce misleading results when voxels are nearby large vessels. Another problem in fMRI is that hemodynamic responses are slower than the neuronal activity. Therefore, temporal resolution is limited in fMRI. Furthermore, the correlation between neural activity and the hemodynamic response is not fully understood. fMRI can only be considered an indirect method of functional brain imaging. Another MR-based method of functional brain mapping is neuronal current magnetic resonance imaging (ncMRI), which has been studied over several years. However, the amplitude of these neuronal current signals is an order of magnitude smaller than the physiological noise. Works on ncMRI include simulation, phantom experiments, and studies in tissue including isolated ganglia, optic nerves, and human brains. However, ncMRI development has been hampered due to the extremely small signal amplitude, as well as the presence of confounding signals from hemodynamic changes and other physiological noise. Magnetic Resonance Electrical Impedance Tomography (MREIT) methods could have the potential for the detection of neuronal activity. In this technique, small external currents are applied to a body during MR scans. This current flow produces a magnetic field as well as an electric field. The altered magnetic flux density along the main magnetic field direction caused by this current flow can be obtained from phase images. When there is neural activity, the conductivity of the neural cell membrane changes and the current paths around the neurons change consequently. Neural spiking activity during external current injection, therefore, causes differential phase accumulation in MR data. Statistical analysis methods can be used to identify neuronal-current-induced magnetic field changes. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Biomedical Engineering 2019

Action potentials of striated muscle are created through movement of ions through membrane ion channels. ATP-sensitive potassium (KATP) channels are the only known channels that are gated by the intracellular energetic level ([ATP]/[ADP] ratio). KATP channels are both effectors and indicators of cellular metabolism as part of a negative feedback system. Decreased intracellular energetic level alters the gating of KATP channels, which is reflected in alterations of the action potential morphology. These changes protect the cell from exhaustion or injury by altering energy-consuming processes that are driven by membrane potential. Assessing the effects of KATP channel activation on resting membrane potential and action potential morphology, and the relationship to cellular stress is important to the understanding of normal cellular function. To better understand how muscle cells adapt to energetic stress, the monophasic action potential (MAP) electrode and floating microelectrode were used to record action potentials in intact hearts and skeletal muscles, respectively. Intact organs provide a more physiological environment for the study of energetics and membrane electrical phenomena. Utilizing these techniques, a stress on the intracellular energetic state resulted in greater and faster shortening of the duration of cardiac action potentials, and hyperpolarization of the membrane of skeletal muscle in a KATP channel dependent manner. Motion artifacts are a limitation to studying transmembrane action potentials, but the MAP and floating microelectrode techniques uniquely allow for reading of action potential morphology uncoupled from motion artifacts. The use of the floating microelectrode in skeletal muscles is a novel approach that provides previously unavailable data on skeletal muscle membrane potentials in situ.

The need for potable water is increasing with the ever-increasing world population. Further development of fast, portable, and cost effective analytical tools is necessary in order to create diagnostic techniques capable of supporting the water needs of the world’s population. Within the last decade microfluidics and Lab-on-a-Chip (LOC) technologies have increased the portability and speed of detection for aqueous samples. Photolithography techniques serve as a cost effective fabrication tool to create LOC electrodes on the micron scale. An in-depth look at the fabrication process is undertaken in this paper in order to further the development of micro-scale detection techniques. An electrode array capable of detecting multiple targets within one aqueous sample was designed and fabricated. The electrode array was assessed for performance characteristics to determine if reproducibility is possible. The fabrication process was also detailed for a new chemical separation technique, traveling-wave electrophoresis (TWE). TWE could serve as a separation tool capable of separating out specific charged molecules for biological and chemical samples. The TWE device was assessed on the capabilities to move charged molecules.

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