Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering / Anil Pahwa / Power distribution systems are transitioning from traditional centralized-control distribution grids to the modern distribution grids that are more customer-interactive and include microgrids (MGs) as well as various unpredictable and multi-scale distributed energy resources (DERs). However, power fueled by renewable DERs such as wind and solar is highly variable and high penetration of renewable DERs in distribution system may potentially degrade the grid reliability and power quality. Moreover, the growth of such generation sources will increase the number of variables and cause scalability concerns for distribution system operators (DSOs) in handling system optimization problems. Further, with development of MGs, DSO and MG may have different owners and schedule renewable and non-renewable DERs based on their own economic rules and policies while secure and economic operation of the entire system is necessary. The widespread integration of wind and solar and deployment of MGs in distribution system make the task of distribution system operation management quite challenging especially from the viewpoint of variability, scalability, and multi-authority operation management. This research develops unique models and methodologies to overcome such issues and make distribution grid operation, optimization and control more robust against renewable intermittency, intractability, and operation complexity. The objectives of this research are as follows: 1) to develop a three-phase unbalanced large-scale distribution system to serve as a benchmark for studying challenges related to integration of DERs, such as scalability concerns in optimization problems, incremental power losses, voltage rise, voltage fluctuations, volt/var control, and operation management; 2) to develop a novel hierarchical and multilevel distributed optimization for power loss minimization via optimal reactive power provisioning from rooftop PVs which addresses the scalability issues with widespread DER integration in large-scale networks; 3) to develop a dynamic operational scheme for residential PV smart inverters to mitigate the fluctuations from rooftop PV integration under all-weather-condition (fully sunny, overcast and transient cloudy days) while increasing network efficiency in terms of power losses, and number of transformer load tap changer (LTC) operation; 4) to develop a stochastic energy management model for multi-authority distribution system operating under uncertainty from load and wind generation, which is able to precisely account interactions between DSO and MGs.

Future electric grid will evolve from the current centralized and radial model toward a more distributed one. In recent years, distributed generation (DG) units have been playing an important role in electric generation due to their promising advantages in reducing air pollution, improving power system efficiency, and relieving stress on power transmission and delivery systems. Despite the increased penetration of DG systems, the application of individual DG system always has its limitation such as high cost/W, limited capacity and reliability, and safety concerns. A better way to utilize the emerging potential of DG is to take a system approach viewing generation and associated loads as a subsystem called a “microgrid”. Forming an electric island, the microgrid can work autonomously following a disturbance. In the islanded microgrid, micro sources are responsible for maintaining the voltage and the frequency of the microgrid system within their specified limits and sharing the load between the generators in a stable manner. However, a robust and stable operation of a microgrid depends on a robust control scheme of the microgrid sources. The most common technique to control microgrid sources is based on conventional droop characteristics. Although the conventional frequency/voltage droop technique properly shares a common active load, the reactive power sharing accuracy can be strongly affected by system parameter and active power control. In addition, frequency variations of different sources in transient mode can cause poor active power sharing. To override the above-mentioned problems, a novel frequency/voltage droop scheme is proposed in this thesis. The proposed scheme improves the performance of the microgrid in terms of power sharing and voltage regulation and smooths the system’s dynamic and transient responses. This work has developed the modeling, control parameters design, and power-sharing control starting from a single voltage source inverter to a number of interconnected DG units forming a flexible microgrid. Specifically, this thesis presents: • A control-oriented modeling based on active and reactive power analysis. • A control synthesis based on enhanced droop control technique. • A small signal stability study to give guidelines for properly adjusting the control system parameters according to the desired dynamic response. / Thesis (Master, Electrical & Computer Engineering) -- Queen's University, 2012-04-25 12:08:48.634

This thesis proposes and evaluates the application of a low-frequency disturbance injection, as an active islanding detection method, in a microgrid with multiple electronically-interfaced Distributed Generation (DG) units. Each DG unit is interfaced to the microgrid through a two-level Voltage-Sourced Converter (VSC). The low-frequency disturbance signal for islanding detection is injected through the q-axis control of each VSC unit. The low-frequency signal is at 1 Hz with an amplitude of up to 2.5 % of the rated VA of the VSC unit and augments the reference signal of the q-axis control. The effectiveness of the low-frequency injection for islanding detection is examined under two distinct VSC control scenarios. In the first scenario, each VSC only injects pre-determined real- and reactive-power components in the system and does not participate in frequency/voltage control. In the second scenario, the VSC controls are also equipped with frequency/real-power and voltage/reactive-power droop characteristics and thus share power and participate in frequency and voltage control of the microgrid, specifically in the islanded mode. The investigations reported in this thesis show that the proposed islanding detection method can effectively detect an islanding event under both VSC control strategies, subject to the conditions that UL and/or IEEE anti-islanding standards impose. The studies show that an islanding event can be detected within 536 ms subsequent to the instant of islanding. As part of this thesis, an eigen analysis software tool has been developed that can systematically investigate the impact of low-frequency disturbance injection on the small-signal stability and dynamic performance of the microgrid, prior and subsequent to an islanding event. This thesis concludes that the low-frequency disturbance injection-based method can be successfully applied to a multi-DG system, since (i) islanding detection is achieved within applicable standards requirements by all DG units in the system, and (ii) the low-frequency disturbance injection signal has no noticeable impact on the dynamics nor the small-signal stability of the system if its magnitude is kept below a pre specified limit.

This thesis proposes and evaluates the application of a low-frequency disturbance injection, as an active islanding detection method, in a microgrid with multiple electronically-interfaced Distributed Generation (DG) units. Each DG unit is interfaced to the microgrid through a two-level Voltage-Sourced Converter (VSC). The low-frequency disturbance signal for islanding detection is injected through the q-axis control of each VSC unit. The low-frequency signal is at 1 Hz with an amplitude of up to 2.5 % of the rated VA of the VSC unit and augments the reference signal of the q-axis control. The effectiveness of the low-frequency injection for islanding detection is examined under two distinct VSC control scenarios. In the first scenario, each VSC only injects pre-determined real- and reactive-power components in the system and does not participate in frequency/voltage control. In the second scenario, the VSC controls are also equipped with frequency/real-power and voltage/reactive-power droop characteristics and thus share power and participate in frequency and voltage control of the microgrid, specifically in the islanded mode. The investigations reported in this thesis show that the proposed islanding detection method can effectively detect an islanding event under both VSC control strategies, subject to the conditions that UL and/or IEEE anti-islanding standards impose. The studies show that an islanding event can be detected within 536 ms subsequent to the instant of islanding. As part of this thesis, an eigen analysis software tool has been developed that can systematically investigate the impact of low-frequency disturbance injection on the small-signal stability and dynamic performance of the microgrid, prior and subsequent to an islanding event. This thesis concludes that the low-frequency disturbance injection-based method can be successfully applied to a multi-DG system, since (i) islanding detection is achieved within applicable standards requirements by all DG units in the system, and (ii) the low-frequency disturbance injection signal has no noticeable impact on the dynamics nor the small-signal stability of the system if its magnitude is kept below a pre specified limit.

Magíster en Ciencias de la Ingeniería, Mención Eléctrica / Ingeniero Civil Electricista / Las microrredes se presentan como una solución frente a los problemas de integración de energías renovables a los sistemas, alimentación de zonas aisladas y una alimentación eléctrica sin interrupciones. Una solución para ello es la implementación de sistemas de control jerárquicos compuestos por un control primario, un control secundario y un control terciario. En general se trabaja con un control primario mediante curvas de estatismo que permite evitar el uso de líneas de comunicación al ser un control distribuido; y un control secundario y terciario centralizados cuyas funciones son restaurar la frecuencia y voltaje a su valor nominal y optimizar la operación de la microrred en cuanto a características económicas. En esta tesis se presenta un sistema de control de tres niveles, de los que se diseña e implementa en Simulink el control primario y secundario, dejando planteada la conexión con el terciario. El control primario utilizado es distribuido, opera mediante curvas de estatismo y tiene la función de permitir compartir potencia entre los inversores; en cambio, el control secundario es centralizado y restablece el voltaje y frecuencia de un sistema a sus valores nominales. El control terciario consiste en un EMS que minimiza los costos de operación de la microrred de acuerdo a predicciones de los recursos disponibles y sus costos. El problema en estudio se compone de dos partes. En primer lugar, se debe analizar la estabilidad de la microrred, para lo cual ésta se analiza de forma independiente en el control primario y secundario. Para ello, el primario utiliza un análisis de estabilidad en pequeña señal, mientras que el secundario un análisis de polos a través de la ecuación característica del sistema. En segundo lugar se estudia el retardo en la comunicación entre el control secundario de frecuencia y los inversores, para lo que se estudian estrategias de control que utilizan predictor de Smith y variaciones éste, así como también control predictivo. Los resultados obtenidos permiten observar que el sistema comparte carga de acuerdo a lo indicado por la teoría, independiente de la carga conectada a cada inversor y los valores de potencia máxima de cada uno, manteniéndose la estabilidad del sistema. Además, se presenta el controlador PI con predictor de Smith con filtro pasa-bajo como la solución al problema de retardo en la comunicación debido a que al ser diseñado para un retardo dado es más robusto que los otros controladores, ya que a medida que aumenta el retardo de la planta y se mantiene el de diseño mantiene la estabilidad para retardos mayores que los otros controladores, sin tener un tiempo de estabilización mayor como ocurre con el controlador predictivo. Finalmente, la simulación permite comprobar que se cumplen los valores máximos determinados mediante un estudio de sensibilidad del sistema, así como también los valores de diseño de los controladores.

Microgrids form small-scale power grids with distributed energy resources such as wind generators, photovoltaic panels, fuel cells, energy storage systems, and controllable loads. The characteristics of a microgrid include bi-directional power flows, flexible modes of operation, as well as variable short circuit currents. Due to the weak injection of fault current and short period nature, the connection of microgrids to the distribution systems or sub-transmission systems creates serious challenges to existing over-current based protection systems. The protection of microgrids is gaining substantial attentions in recent years because of large-scale deployment of microgrids and its impacts to existing electricity infrastructures. New protection methodologies and solutions applicable for microgrids are studied and presented in this dissertation. To effectively protect the microgrids, three areas of study are conducted based on the latest technologies in the protection systems, computing platforms, and communication networks. Firstly, the Point of Interconnection protection using distance protection with residual voltage compensation method for an ungrounded microgrid network is presented. This study resolves the challenging issues of detecting single-phase-to-ground fault at the interconnection line of microgrid. It can correctly identify the fault, properly measure the fault location, and timely isolate the fault without jeopardizing the stability of downstream microgrid system and/or causing dangerous overvoltage and arcing conditions. Secondly, the distribution substation busbar protection using the synchrophasor data is studied to realize fast and reliable bus differential protection. Comparing with other busbar protection schemes, this method has the advantages of low cost, easy configuration, fast expansion, and no circuit limitation. Lastly, an adaptive protection solution for distribution feeders with microgrids is developed and tested using RTDS. This study focuses on providing a framework for microgrid over-current coordination to improve the reliability and dependability of the protected network. Overall, the research studies presented in this dissertation will provide the power industries with new insights and methodologies on microgrid protection. Together with other protection functions, the proposed methods can provide effective microgrid protection against dangerous faults, reduce arcing condition, increase the possibility of seamless islanding, and consequently improve the reliability and resilience of microgrids.

Heightened awareness of the impact of climate change has led to rapidly increasing penetration of renewable energy resources in electric energy distribution systems. Those distributed energy resources (DERs), mostly inverter-based, can act as resiliency sources for the grid but also introduce new control and stability challenges. In this thesis, a cyber-physical system (CPS) testbed is proposed combining a real-time electro-magnetic transient power system simulation and a practical model for communication network simulation. By regularly updating the CPS testbed with real-world SCADA information, a digital twin is effectively created. The digital twin allows the testing of novel microgrid control and cybersecurity strategies. Simulations using the Virginia Tech Electric Service (VTES) as a test case demonstrate the capability of adequately controlled resources, including solar PV, energy storage, and a synchronous generator, to enhance resilience by providing energy to critical loads. The DERs comply with IEEE disturbance ride-through requirements and switching transients are maintained within acceptable limits. A comprehensive DER-based resiliency plan is developed and validated for the Virginia Tech smart grid. / M.S. / In the last two decades, the increased occurrence of major power outages in the United States underscores the critical need to improve the reliability and resilience of the power grid. Massive investments have been made to install information and communications technology enabling near real-time monitoring and control of the smart grid. Simultaneously, heightened awareness of the impact of climate change led to rapidly increasing penetration of renewable energy resources at the distribution system level. Those distributed energy resources, mostly inverter-based, can act as resiliency sources for the grid but also introduce new control and stability challenges. In this work, a comprehensive testbed is proposed for the real-time simulation of both the power systems and communication networks. This method allows the testing of novel microgrid control and cybersecurity strategies. The testbed is used to develop and validate a resiliency plan for the Virginia Tech Electric Service using distributed energy resources.

Les réseaux électriques doivent absorber une production d'énergie renouvelable croissante, de façon décentralisée. Leur gestion optimale amène à des problèmes spécifiques. Nous étudions dans cette thèse la formulation mathématique de tels problèmes en tant que problèmes d'optimisation stochastique multi-pas de temps. Nous analysons plus spécifiquement la décomposition en temps et en espace de tels problèmes. Dans la première partie de ce manuscrit, Décomposition temporelle pour l'optimisation de la gestion de microgrid domestique, nous appliquons les méthodes d'optimisation stochastique à la gestion de microgrid de petite taille. Nous comparons différents algorithmes d'optimisation sur deux exemples: le premier considère une microgrid domestique équipée avec une batterie et une centrale de micro-cogénération; le deuxième considère quant à lui une autre microgrid domestique, cette fois équipée avec une batterie et des panneaux solaires. Dans la seconde partie, Décomposition temporelle et spatiale de problèmes d'optimisation de grande taille, nous étendons les études précédentes à des microgrids de plus grandes tailles, avec différentes unités et stockages connectés ensemble. La résolution frontale de tels problèmes de grande taille par Programmation Dynamique s'avère impraticable. Nous proposons deux algorithmes originaux pour pallier ce problème en mélangeant une décomposition temporelle avec une décomposition spatiale --- par les prix ou par les ressources. Dans la dernière partie, Contributions à l'algorithme Stochastic Dual Dynamic Programming, nous nous concentrons sur l'algorithme emph{Stochastic DualDynamic Programming} (SDDP) qui est actuellement une méthode de référence pour résoudre des problèmes d'optimisation stochastique multi-pas de temps. Nous étudions un nouveau critère d'arrêt pour cet algorithme basé sur une version duale de SDDP, qui permet d'obtenir une borne supérieure déterministe pour le problème primal / New energy systems are designed to absorb a large share of renewableenergy in a decentralized fashion. Their optimized management raises specificissues. We study mathematical formulation as large scale multistagestochastic optimization problems. We focus on time and space decompositionmethods in a stochastic setting.In the first part of this manuscript, Time decomposition inoptimization and management of home microgrids, we apply stochasticoptimization algorithms to the management of small scale microgrids. We compare different optimization algorithms on two examples:a domestic microgrid equipped with a microCombined Heat and Power generator and a battery;a domestic microgrid equipped with a battery and solar panels.In the second part, Mixing time and spatial decomposition inlarge-scale optimization problems, we extend the previous studies tolarger microgrids, where different units and storage devices are connected together. As a direct resolution by Dynamic Programming of such large scale systemsis untractable, we propose original algorithms mixing time decomposition on the one hand, and price and resource spatial decomposition on the other hand.In the third part, Contributions to Stochastic Dual Dynamic Programming,we focus on the Stochastic Dual Dynamic Programming (SDDP) algorithm,a well-known algorithm to solve multistage stochastic optimizationproblems. We present a new stopping criteria based on a dual versionof SDDP which gives a deterministic upper-bound for the primal problem

Aujourd'hui et à l'avenir, l'augmentation des prix du carburant, la déréglementation et les contraintes de l'environnement donnent plus de possibilités pour l'utilisation des sources d'énergie renouvelables (SER) dans les réseaux électriques. Un concept de microgrid est nécessaire afin d'intégrer les sources d'énergie renouvelables dans le réseau électrique. Ce microgrid comprend un réseau de basse tension (BT) avec les ressources d'énergie distribuées (DER) ainsi que les moyens de stockage et des charges flexibles. L'intégration des énergies renouvelables dans un microgrid peut causer des enjeux et des impacts sur le fonctionnement du microgrid. C'est pourquoi dans cette thèse, un dimensionnement optimal et les stratégies de fonctionnement en sécurité, fiabilité et efficacité d'un microgrid comportant des productions photovoltaïques (PV), des systèmes de stockage d'énergie de la batterie (BESS) et / ou les diesels sont proposés. Tout d'abord, la technique d'optimisation itérative est utilisée pour trouver le dimensionnement optimal d'un microgrid. Deuxièmement, les stratégies de contrôle de tension et de fréquence pour un microgrid en mode îloté en utilisant les statismes sont étudiées. De plus, nous proposons les stratégies intelligentes de contrôle de tension et de la fréquence à l'aide de la logique floue. De cette manière, la fréquence est exprimée non seulement en fonction de la puissance active, mais aussi de l'état de charge de BESS et des régimes de fonctionnement de microgrid. Et enfin, une méthode pour optimiser la gestion de l'énergie dans l'exploitation d'un microgrid est proposée dans cette thèse. La programmation dynamique est utilisée pour trouver le minimum du coût du carburant compte tenu des émissions par la planification des ressources énergétiques distribuées (de DER) dans un microgrid en mode îloté ainsi que pour minimiser le coût d'énergie et les puissances d'échange avec le réseau en mode connecté. Les résultats de simulation obtenus montrent la précision et l'efficacité des solutions proposées. / Today and in the future, the increase of fuel price, deregulation and environment constraints give more opportunities for the usage of the renewable energy sources (RES) in power systems. A microgrid concept is needed in order to integrate the renewable sources in the electrical grid. It comprises low voltage (LV) system with distributed energy resources (DERs) together with storage devices and flexible loads. The integration of RES into a microgrid can cause challenges and impacts on microgrid operation. Thus, in this thesis, an optimal sizing and security, reliability and economic efficiency operation strategies of a microgrid including photovoltaic productions (PV), battery energy storage systems (BESS) and/or diesels is proposed. Firstly, the iterative optimization technique is used to find the optimal sizing of a microgrid. Secondly, the voltage and frequency control strategies for an island microgrid by using droop control methods are studied. Furthermore, we propose intelligent voltage and frequency control strategies by using fuzzy logic. By this way, the frequency is expressed not only as the function of active power but also the state of charge of BESS and the operation states of microgrid. And finally, a method to optimize the energy management in operation of a microgrid is proposed in this thesis. Dynamic programming is used to find the minimum the cost of fuel considering the emissions by scheduling of distributed energy resources (DERs) in an island microgrid as well as to minimize the cash flows and the exchanged power with the main grid in a grid-connected mode. The simulation results obtained show the accuracy and efficiency of the proposed solutions.

Cuba has a long history of different dependencies and is a country facing many energy challenges, and therefore seeks to diversify its energy sources and reduce its reliance on fossil fuels. The purpose of this degree project is therefore to conceptualize a microgrid based on renewable energy sources for local energy sustainability at the lowest cost possible. For this purpose, the sugar mill Carlos Baliño and its surrounding community, in Villa Clara, Cuba is used for a case study. The currently existing electricity generation at Carlos Baliño is tied to the steam needed to run the sugar production process, which is generated with a back-pressure steam engine. This thesis evaluates the possibility to extend the system including a condensing extraction steam turbine connected to a new generator, solar PV, and wind power by developing and comparing three scenarios for the future. The BASE scenario is the business as-usual case including no changes, the PLAN scenario is based on the plans of installing a 1 MW solar PV power plants, and the APT scenario includes all possible technologies to be part of the system. For all scenarios, the different microgrid configuration were evaluated based on the following key performance indicators; CAPEX, NPV, IRR and DPP of the microgrid, share of electricity supplied from the grid and lastly the emission reduction rate compared to the current system in Carlos Baliño. In addition to the technical, economic, and social perspective, the results are evaluated in relation to the national context and goals. Evolution of microgrids is significant to develop more sustainable power systems. The key advantages of this microgrid solution include reduced greenhouse gas emissions, increased energy independence, and improved resilience in the electricity supply. By utilizing bagasse and renewable energy sources like solar PV and wind, Cuba can reduce its dependence on imported fossil fuels, leading to lower carbon emissions and contributing to global climate change mitigation efforts. Moreover, the integration of bagasse-based cogeneration plants enhances the country's energy resilience by diversifying the energy mix and reducing vulnerability to external energy shocks. The distributed nature of microgrids enables local communities to generate their own clean energy, fostering self-sufficiency and socioeconomic empowerment. The results show negative NPV for the BASE and PLAN scenarios. When including a Condensing Extraction Steam Turbine generator, the electricity supplied from the grid decreases from 30 to 11% for the BASE scenario and even more for the PLAN. Additionally, for the PLAN scenario, the 1 MW solar PV investment in isolation generates a positive NPV of 2.67 million USD indicating a good investment even though the whole system shows infeasibility and should increase the solar PV installation size to become profitable. Lastly, for the APT scenario, the NPV is 59.8 million USD, with an IRR of 11% and payback time of 7 years showing a good investment. However, with a high CAPEX of 41.3 million USD. The emission reduction rate is as high as 92%. Furthermore, a sensitivity analysis is performed to address the uncertainty in different cost parameters affecting the results of the study. And the result shows that the system NPV is most sensitive to the change in cost in bagasse fuel price. In conclusion, the integrated microgrid solution with solar PV and bagasse represents a sustainable and resilient energy option for Carlos Baliño and Cuba in general. By capitalizing on its solar potential and utilizing bagasse as a local biomass resource, Cuba can achieve a greener and more reliable energy system while promoting rural development and reducing carbon footprint. This solution can serve as a blueprint for other regions in Cuba and the Caribbean with similar energy challenges seeking to transition to renewable energy and achieve energy security. / Kuba har en lång historia av olika beroenden och är ett land som står inför många energiutmaningar, och försöker därför diversifiera sina energikällor och minska sitt beroende av fossila bränslen. Syftet med detta examensarbete är därför att konceptualisera ett mikronät baserat på förnybara energikällor för lokal energihållbarhet till längsta möjliga kostnad. För detta ändamål genomförs en fallstudie av sockerfabriken Carlos Baliño och dess närliggande samhälle, i Villa Clara, Kuba. Den nuvarande elproduktionen vid Carlos Baliño är kopplad till den ånga som behövs för att driva sockerproduktionsprocessen, som genereras med en back-pressure turbin. Vårt mål är att utvärdera möjligheten att utöka systemet och inkludera en CEST-generator, solcellsenergi och vindkraft. Dem olika konfigurationerna på mikronätet utvärderas utifrån följande nyckeltal; CAPEX, NPV, IRR och DPP för mikronätet, andel el som levereras från nätet och slutligen utsläppsminskningstakten jämfört med det nuvarande systemet i Carlos Baliño. Utöver det tekniska, ekonomiska och sociala lokala perspektivet utvärderas resultaten i relation till nationella sammanhang och mål. Utvecklingen av mikronätet är viktig för att utveckla mer hållbara kraftsystem. De viktigaste fördelarna med denna mikronätslösning inkluderar minskade växthusgasutsläpp, ökat energioberoende och förbättrad motståndskraft i elförsörjningen. Genom att använda bagass och förnybara energikällor som solenergi och vindkraft kan Kuba minska sitt beroende av importerade fossila bränslen, vilket leder till lägre koldioxidutsläpp och bidrar till globala klimatförändringar. Dessutom förbättrar integrationen av bagass-baserade kraftvärmeverk landets energitålighet genom att diversifiera energimixen och minska sårbarheten för externa energichocker. Mikronätets möjlighet till distribuerad energiproduktion gör det möjligt för lokalsamhällen att generera sin egen rena energi, vilket främjar självförsörjning och socioekonomisk egenmakt.  Resultaten visar en negativ NPV för BASE och PLAN scenarierna. När en Condensing Extraction Steam Turbine generator inkluderas minskar eltillförseln från nätet från 30 till 11% i BASE scenariot och ännu mer för PLAN. Dessutom, för PLAN scenariot, ger 1 MW solcellsinvesteringen en positiv NPV på 2,67 miljoner USD när den beräknas för sig själv, vilket indikerar en bra investering. Däremot är hela systemet inte ekonomiskt möjlig, och bör öka solcellsanläggningens storlek för att bli lönsam. Slutligen, för APT scenariot, är NPV 59,8 miljoner USD, med en IRR på 11% och en återbetalningstid på 7 år, vilket visar på en bra investering. Dessutom med en utsläppsminskningsgraden är så hög som 92%. Dock med en hög CAPEX på 41,3 miljoner USD. Vidare görs en känslighetsanalys för att ta itu med osäkerheten i olika kostnadsparametrar som påverkar studiens resultat. Och resultatet visar att systemets NPV är mest känsligt för förändringen i priset på bagassbränslet. Sammanfattningsvis representerar den integrerade mikronätlösningen med solceller och bagass ett hållbart och motståndskraftigt energialternativ för Carlos Baliño och Kuba i allmänhet. Genom att utnyttja sin solpotential och använda bagass som en lokal biomassaresurs kan Kuba uppnå ett grönare och mer tillförlitligt energisystem samtidigt som det främjar landsbygdsutveckling och minskar koldioxidavtrycket. Denna lösning kan fungera som en plan för andra regioner på Kuba och Karibien med liknande energiutmaningar som försöker gå över till förnybar energi och uppnå energisäkerhet.