Thesis (Ph. D.)--Auburn University, 2008. / Abstract. Vita. Includes bibliographical references (p. 132-148).

Sickle cell disease (SCD) is a disorder in which defective hemoglobin causes sickling of red blood cells, inducing painful vaso-occlusive crises when blood flow is blocked at sites of red blood cell (RBC) clotting that can ultimately result in organ failure or death. This work demonstrates that sphingolipid metabolism is dysregulated in SCD and that this pathway can be targeted pharmacologically to prevent vaso-occlusion. We suggest a pathway in which the sickling of RBCs in SCD activates acid sphingomyelinase, altering the distribution and concentration of sphingolipids in the RBC membrane and resulting in the production of sphingolipid-rich microparticles that are secreted and can interact with cells in circulation. Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) is believed to be a key modulator of SCD because it is stored at high concentrations in RBCs. Sphingolipid metabolism was confirmed to be dysregulated in SCD; most notably, S1P was significantly elevated in RBCs, and plasma, and microparticles, and the activity of acid sphingomyelinase and concentration of its byproduct, microparticles, were significantly elevated in SCD RBCs. Treatment of monocytes with S1P and SCD RBCs increased their adhesion over four-fold to endothelial cells, indicating that altered sphingolipid distribution in RBCs may contribute to vaso-occlusion through increasing myeloid cell adhesion. A cytokine profile of macrophages treated with SCD microparticles suggest that microparticles play a role in this process by increasing the secretion of inflammatory cytokines associated with SCD crises, including MIP-1α, IL-6, and TNF-α. Pilot in vitro studies in RBCs and in vivo studies in mice implicate that drugs targeting the sphingolipid metabolic pathway may be more effective treatment options than blood transfusions in managing SCD and preventing vaso-occlusive crises.

The aim of this study was to prepare biologically active insulin-loaded alginate microparticles by spray drying. Particles were produced from three alginate feed concentrations of 1, 1.5 and 2% w/v, with respective insulin loadings of 11.8, 7.8 and 5.8 mg/g of alginate and investigated in terms of mass yield, moisture content, particle size, morphology and encapsulation efficiency. The mass yield of the system was determined to be between 15 and 30%, with approximately 3% of the initial dry mass ending up in the exhaust filter. The moisture content of the particles was found to be between 4.9 and 11.1% and the mean size ranged between 1.2 and 1.6 μm. Particulate morphologies were observed to be mostly spherical with some ‘divots’ present on the surface. Lastly, the encapsulation efficiency determined by absorbance assay was approximately 40%. Particles produced from a 2% alginate feed were further assayed by determining the release of insulin in simulated gastrointestinal conditions and looking at the insulin and alginate distribution within spray dried particles. A steep release profile was observed in the first 120 min of the simulation in a gastric pH of 1.2 and a longer, more sustained release is observed in intestinal conditions, where an additional 20% of the total insulin in the particles is released over 600 min. Fluorescent labels revealed that insulin and alginate are concentrated towards the periphery of the particles. The residual bioactivity of insulin was assessed by an in vitro bioactivity assay, which was developed using Fast Activated Cell Based ELISA (FACE™) AKT kits specific for phosphylated AKT. The bioactivity of insulin in the particles after spray drying was determined to be 87.9 ± 15.3%. / Thesis (Master, Chemical Engineering) -- Queen's University, 2009-09-20 20:32:29.103

Novos sistemas de liberação de fármacos têm sido desenvolvidos com o intuito de melhorar a eficácia terapêutica de muitos fármacos no tratamento de diferentes patologias. Os sistemas microparticulados têm despertado grande interesse devido a suas propriedades, suas vantagens sobre os sistemas de distribuição convencional e, conseqüentemente, melhoria na adesão ao tratamento. As micropartículas de quitosana são exploradas como sistemas de liberação sítio-específico, devido suas propriedades biodegradáveis, biocompatíveis e mucoadesivas. Assim, visando o tratamento da tuberculose, que atualmente é causa prevalente de morte considerando as doenças infecciosas no mundo, neste trabalho micropartículas constituídas de quitosana foram desenvolvidas para veicular isoniazida. A isoniazida, uma hidrazida do ácido isonicotínico, é uma dos fármacos mais poderosos entre os fármacos de primeira linha utilizados no tratamento da tuberculose devido à sua alta eficiência, baixa dose e de baixo custo, tornando-o um bom candidato para o desenvolvimento de uma formulação de liberação sítio-específica. Por spray-drying, as micropartículas inertes e com isoniazida obtidas apresentaram-se esféricas e com ampla distribuição de tamanho de partículas que variou entre 5 e 12 m, potencial zeta positivo e elevada eficiência de encapsulação. O perfil liberação in vitro em tampão fosfato salino (PBS) pH 7,4 apresentou formação de produto de degradação, sendo confirmado por espectrometria de massa como o ácido isonicotínico. Entretanto, a isoniazida mostrou ter uma liberação rápida (1 hora) a partir das micropartículas de quitosana em meio aquoso. Dessa forma, as micropartículas de quitosana desenvolvidas constituem um sistema promissor para veiculação da isoniazida e administração pulmonar e, finalmente, melhoria da terapia da tuberculose. Ademais, adequações do método deverão ser testadas considerando a via de administração pretendida, bem como será necessária a realização de estudos in vivo para avaliar o comportamento dos sistemas desenvolvidos em condições fisiológicas reais e a biodisponibilidade e biodistribuição do fármaco no organismo. / New drug delivery systems have been developed in order to improve the therapeutic efficacy of many drugs in the treatment of different pathologies. Microparticles have attracted great interest due to its properties, its advantages over conventional delivery systems and, consequently, better treatment adherence. The chitosan-based microparticles are exploited as delivery systems for site-specific, because their biodegradable, biocompatible and mucoadhesive properties. Thus, chitosan-based microspheres containing isoniazid were developed to target the treatment of tuberculosis, which is currently prevalent cause of death considering infectious diseases in the world. Isoniazid, an isonicotinic acid hydrazide, is one of the most powerful drugs among first-line drugs used to treat tuberculosis due to its high efficiency, low dose and low cost, making it a good candidate for the development of site-specific delivery system. By spray-drying, the isoniazid-loaded and free microparticles obtained presented wide size particle distribution with particle size ranging between 5 and 12 m, spherical morphology, positive zeta potential and high encapsulation efficiency. The in vitro release profile in phosphate buffered saline (PBS) pH 7.4 showed the formation of degradation product, which was confirmed by mass spectrometry as isonicotinic acid. However, isoniazid release from the microparticles was fast (1 hour) in water. Thus, the developed chitosan microparticles are a promising system as a vehicle to isoniazid and pulmonary administration, and ultimately to improve the therapy of tuberculosis. Moreover, adaptations of the method should be tested considering the intended route of administration and it will be necessary to perform in vivo studies to evaluate the behavior of the systems developed under physiological conditions and actual bioavailability and biodistribution of the drug in the body.

Micropartículas de quitosana contendo DMAE foram preparadas utilizando o método de coacervação simples. A morfologia das partículas foi observada utilizando um Microscópio Eletrônico de Varredura. O tamanho das partículas foi medido por técnica de espalhamento de luz. As partículas obtidas possuem forma esférica e superfície irregular. Apresentaram uma distribuição de tamanho entre 419 e 528 nm. O pequeno índice de polidispersividade sugere que a distribuição do tamanho de partícula é homogêneo. O rendimento do processo e eficiência de encapsulação foram de 90% e 63%, respectivamente. O desenvolvimento de um novo sistema de liberação requer uma metodologia analítica para a identificação e quantificação do fármaco. Neste trabalho um método simples por cromatografia de fase reversa desenvolvido para a análise do DMAE é apresentado. O DMAE foi analisado utilizando- se uma coluna Merck RP 18 column 5 m (125 x 4 mm D.I.). A fase móvel foi tampão fosfato pH 7,4; acetonitrila (99,5:0,5 v/v) a um fluxo de 0,5 mL.min-1. O comprimento de onda de detecção foi de 208nm à temperatura ambiente (25oC). Linearidade foi obtida para uma faixa de 1,5x10-4 a 6,0x10-4 mol.L-1. Para os ensaios intra e inter dia o coeficiente de variação foi menor que 10%. Este novo método desenvolvido para a quantificação do DMAE apresentou sensibilidade e seletividade, demonstrando ser um método vantajoso e confiável para a realização dos estudos propostos. O método de encapsulação mostrou-se adequado para a preparação de micropartículas de quitosana contendo DMAE, porque apresentou alto rendimento e excelente eficiência de encapsulação. / Chitosan microparticles containing DMAE were prepared by using the simple coacervation method. A scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to observe microparticles morphology. Particle size was measured by laser light scattering. Particles presented spherical shape, irregular surface and size distribution between 419 and 528 nm. The small polydispersity index suggested that size distribution is homogeneous. Process yield and encapsulation efficiency were 90% and 63%, respectively. The development of a new drug delivery system requires analytical methods for identification and quantification of this drug. In the present study a simple reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography developed for DMAE assay is presented. The DMAE was analyzed using/by means of a 5 ?m Merck RP 18 column (125 x 4 mm I.D.). The mobile phase was phosphate buffer pH 7,4; acetonitrile (99,5:0,5 v/v) at a flow rate of 0,5 mL.min-1. Detection was carried out at 208nm at room temperature (25oC). Linearity was obtained from 1,5x10-4 to 6,0x10-4 mol.L-1. Intra and inter- assay coefficient of variation was less than 10 %. This new method developed to assay DMAE presented sensibility and selectivity, providing a useful and reliable means to perform the proposed studies. The encapsulation method was proven suitable to the preparation of chitosan microparticles containing DMAE because it presented high yields and excellent encapsulation efficiency.

Les microparticules sont des vésicules extracellulaires qui résultent du remodelage des phospholipides membranaires en réponse à une activation ou une apoptose. La vision initiale leur attribuant une activité uniquement procoagulante s’avère plus complexe, par la mise en évidence d'une activité plasminogénolytique portée par les MPs endothéliales, tumorales et leucocytaires (MPLs). Au cours de ce travail, nous avons démontré un nouveau mécanisme impliquant les MPLs comme des vecteurs d’une activité fibrinolytique capable de lyser un thrombus fibrino-plaquettaire en fonction de leur activité de génération de plasmine. Cette activité s’intègre dans un rôle protecteur des MPs capable de contrebalancer le risque de microthromboses associé au choc septique. Cette activité fibrinolytique identifie les MPs comme des biomarqueurs déterminants pour le pronostic vital mais aussi comme des cibles thérapeutiques potentielles, pouvant être à l’origine de biothérapies vésiculaires basées sur la génération de MPs fibrinolytiques de grade clinique. L’évaluation du bénéfice apporté par les MPs est actuellement limitée par un manque de standardisation. Dans une seconde partie de ce travail, nous avons proposé une nouvelle stratégie de standardisation de la cytométrie en flux. Cette stratégie a été évaluée dans le cadre d'une étude multicentrique internationale qui a montré pour la première fois l’absence de différence significative des numérations des MPs entre des instruments de configuration optique différente. Maitriser des protocoles standardisés est une étape indispensable pour accélérer le transfert de ces innovations diagnostiques et thérapeutiques au lit du patient. / The microparticles are extracellular vesicles resulting from the remodeling of membrane phospholipids in response to activation or apoptosis. The initial vision only assigning a procoagulant activity is more complex, by highlighting a range plasminogenolytic activity by endothelial, tumor and leukocyte (MPLS) MPs. In this work, we demonstrated a novel mechanism involving MPLS as vectors fibrinolytic activity able to lyse a fibrin-platelet thrombus on the basis of generation of plasmin activity. This activity is part of a protective role of MPs which may counterbalance the risk of microthromboses associated with septic shock. This fibrinolytic activity identifies MPs as key biomarkers for prognosis but also as potential therapeutic targets that can be the source of vesicular biotherapies based on generation of fibrinolytic MPs of clinical grade. The evaluation of the benefit provided by MPs is currently limited by a lack of standardization. In the second part of this work, we proposed a new strategy for standardization of flow cytometry. This strategy was evaluated in a multicenter international study that showed for the first time no significant difference in MPs counts between different optical configuration tools. To master standardized protocols is a necessary step to improve the transfer of these diagnostic and therapeutic innovations to the patient.

Whilst working on a Masters degree on alternative solvents and extractants for the sorghum prolamin protein, kafirin, the author serendipitously found an ethanol-free method of making kafirin microparticles in dilute organic acid. Further, on drying a suspension of kafirin microparticles in dilute organic acid, a clear, transparent film was found to be formed. Microparticles from zein, the maize prolamin protein, have shown potential for food and pharmaceutical applications. Kafirin is more hydrophobic and less digestible than zein so it was hypothesised that it may form microparticles with superior properties. However, the structural and functional characteristics of kafirin microparticles and films made from them needed to be known before any potential applications could be exploited. Kafirin microparticles were made by dissolution of kafirin in glacial acetic acid followed by precipitation on addition of water. They were characterized by Light microscopy (LM), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) and were found to be mainly spherical, porous and between 1-10 ìm in diameter. The kafirin microparticles had very large internal surface area due to the presence of many smooth walled holes or vacuoles of variable sizes, probably caused by entrapment of air during microparticle formation. Increasing the final acetic acid concentration resulted in kafirin microparticles of increased size, with an increasing number of internal holes. At 40% acetic acid the spherical microparticle structures completely disappeared and were replaced by an open matrix which resembled an expanded foam. The kafirin microparticles were found to form very thin (<15 ìm) free standing films and coatings. A minimum concentration of organic acid (10.8 percent) is required to form a cohesive kafirin microparticle film relative to the concentration of protein (1 percent for acetic acid). Some functional properties, e.g. smooth film surface properties, low water vapour permeability (WVP) and low protein digestibility of these films are superior to those of similar conventionally cast kafirin films. With the aim of exploiting the porous nature of kafirin microparticles for encapsulation of nutrient additives, several factors were examined for their influence on retarding protein digestibility. Retardation of digestibility of kafirin microparticles would allow controlled release of the encapsulated agent in the stomach and gastrointestinal tract. The importance of disulphide cross-linking and sorghum condensed tannin protein interactions were confirmed as major causal factors of the poor protein digestibility of sorghum. Gamma-kafirin was found to bind the most condensed tannins compared to the a-and b- kafirins, probably due to its high proline content. As expected, the protein digestibility of kafirin-tannin complexes was much lower than unbound kafirins. This seems to slow the biodegradation of kafirin films made with bound tannins. The antioxidants, catechin and sorghum condensed tannins were encapsulated within kafirin microparticles and the antioxidant release profiles investigated under simulated gastric conditions. Over a period of four hours, catechin and condensed tannin encapsulated kafirin microparticles showed virtually no protein digestion but released approximately 70% and 50% respectively total antioxidant activity. The mechanism for the formation of kafirin microparticles and films formed from them seems to involve controlled aggregation of kafirin molecules. Models for the formation of both were proposed based on an analogy with protein body formation and the potential ability of -kafirin to undergo a structural inversion exposing either hydrophilic or hydrophobic ends depending on the prevailing conditions. Research into cross-linking by physical or chemical agents is needed before practical applications can be exploited. However, encapsulation of catechin and sorghum condensed tannins within kafirin microparticles seems to be an effective way to use the binding properties of polyphenols with protein to enhance potential health benefits by controlled release of antioxidant activity within the stomach and gastrointestinal tract. Copyright / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2009. / Food Science / unrestricted

Individuals with diabetes have an increased mortality due to the macro- and microvascular complications, which are commonly preceded by endothelial dysfunction. We have shown that endothelial microparticles (eMPs) are markers and mediators of vascular injury and pathology. However, their utility as a biomarker of hyperglycemia-induced endothelial damage and their influence on the vasculature remains unclear. We hypothesized that high glucose (HG) exposure alters eMPs protein composition, making them reflective of active signalling processes characteristic of a hyperglycemic environment. In addition, HG alters eMPs bioactivity, making them more potent inducers of oxidative stress, thrombosis and endothelial damage. Therefore, we assessed the exclusive effects of HG on eMPs formation, composition, and signalling. Results: Exposure of endothelial cells to high glucose for 24 hours caused a 3-fold increase in eMPs formation, increased mean vesicle size and their absolute electronegativity. Proteomic analysis of eMPs identified 1,212 independent proteins, with 68 exclusive to HG and associated with signalling processes related to metabolic processes, oxidation-reduction reactions, hemostasis and thrombosis and cellular interactions at the vascular wall. Compared to eMPs formed under normal conditions, eMPs formed in response to HG possess a ~3-fold greater procoagulant activity, induced a greater production of cellular ROS and were more potent inhibitors of endothelial-dependent relaxation. Conclusions/Interpretation: Taken together our results indicate HG alters the composition of eMPs, making them more potent mediators of endothelial damage. With similar changes in bioactivity being evident in the protein composition and the associated enriched biological processes, eMPs protein content may provide insight into the pathophysiological status of the cells in a hyperglycemic environment and provide use clinically, to identify dysregulated pathways for therapeutic targeting.

Margination is the migration of particles in a channel towards the outer walls of the channel. In blood microcirculation, studying the margination of microparticles is important to understand platelet migration and the kinetics of drug delivery. Many new topics in drug delivery research examine the slow release of drugs through micro particles, such as micelles. The margination of such drug carriers is related to tissue absorption and, consequently, to the efficiency of drug delivery. We hypothesized that the intensity of red blood cell (RBC) aggregation will change the level of margination in a cylindrical channel. RBC aggregation is the reversible process of RBCs clumping together over time, under low fluid shear rate. A higher level of aggregation means that this clumping occurs more quickly. The goal of this thesis is to design an experiment that measures the level margination of microparticles and the effect that RBC aggregation has on margination, in a controlled in vitro environment. Fluorescent microparticles were added to human blood preparations. The aggregation properties of the blood preparation were modulated by the addition of a macromolecule (Dextran 500). The blood preparations were injected into PDMS microfluidic devices that were modified to have circular channels in order to better mimic the geometry of physiological microcirculation. We designed a circular microchannel that worked to capture the marginating microparticles and it was found that the level of margination of the microparticles increased with an increase in aggregation of the RBCs. This increase in margination was especially sensitive to aggregation levels in the range of physiological aggregation levels of whole blood, suggesting that aggregation plays an important role in margination in vivo.

The influence of microparticles on electroosmotic flow was investigated experimentally and numerically. Experiments were conducted using four different particle types of varying chemical composition, surface charge and polarity. Each particle type was tested at five different volume fractions ranging from 0.001 – 0.025. With a constant applied electric field, positively charged particles enhanced the electroosmotic flow by as much as 850%. The enhancement depended on particle composition, size and concentration. For negatively charged particles, the bulk electroosmotic flow was retarded with the largest reductions being 35%. This occurred for the greatest negative paricle concentration studied. A final experimental study utilizing a single volume fraction and particle type was conducted using microtube inner diameters of 100 – 300 micrometers. It was found that the effective electroosmotic mobility decreases with increasing microtube diameter. A numerical study of microparticle influenced electroosmotic flow was also conducted for positively and negatively charged particles. A Galilean transformation was employed in which the particles were held stationary. A moving wall model was utilized to account for the particle velocity and the wall-induced electroosmotic flow. The particle-induced electroosmotic flow was also accounted for. A range of particle velocities were imposed in order to study the flow physics for a range of potential flows. Scenarios were run for a single tube diameter of 100 micrometers and a single particle diameter of 1.7 micrometers. Volume fractions of 0.001, 0.0075 and 0.025 were tested for both positively and negatively charged particles. At least two particle charges were studied for each volume fraction and polarity. Comparisons of the trends in the numerical model are qualitatively compared with the trends in the experimental data. The numerical and experimental data demonstrated similar trends. For positively charged particles, an increase in volume fraction showed a nonlinear increase in the average bulk flow velocity. For negatively charged particles an increase in volume fraction showed a nonlinear decrease in the average bulk flow velocity.