Le bassin supérieur de l’oued Djemaa qui fait partie de la montagne du Djurdjura est affecté par une importante morphogenèse. Les mouvements de terrain présentent une grande variété dans le secteur d’étude et jouent un rôle prépondérant dans l’évolution des versants. L’étude géomophologique détaillée, une enquête auprès des populations locales, des analyses géotechniques et l’analyse sédimentologique des formations déplacées nous ont permis de faire une typologie des mouvements de terrain et de dégager les facteurs de leur développement et de leur localisation. Les fortes précipitations d’hiver et de printemps sont à l’origine de tous les mouvements de terrain et des ravinements, mais l’exposition et la lithologie permettent de comprendre les formes différentes rencontrées sur les adrets et sur les ubacs. Les activités humaines jouent un rôle croissant dans l’accélération de la morphogenèse. Dans cette étude, un système d’Information Géographique a été utilisé pour produire les cartes des risques de dégradation du milieu qui sont des outils pour la planification et la gestion de l’utilisation du sol dans le bassin supérieur de l’oued Djemaa. Il permet de croiser la vulnérabilité avec l’aléa. Le résultat de ces croisements que nous avons codifiés débouche sur une carte globale de niveaux de risque / The upper basin of the oued Djemaa which includes to the mountain of Djurdjura is affected by an important morphogenesis. The ground movements introduces a large variety in the study area and play a preponderant role in the evolution of mountainsides. The geomorphology detailed study an investigation into the local populations, geotechtonic and analyses it sedimentology of displaced trainings allows us to do ground typology movement and to chow theire development factors and their location. The big rainfalls of winter and sprinter are the origin of these ground movements and gully erosions, but exposition and lithology allow to understand different forms on northern and southern slope. Human activities play more and more an important role in morphogenesis acceleration. In this study, a geographical information system has been used to provide degradation maps of risks of which are tools for planning and management of soil using in the upper basin of the oued Djemaa. He allows to cross vulnerability witch vagary. The result of these crossroads which we codified results in a total map of risk levels

Les épithéliums jouent le rôle fondamental de barrière physique et chimique chez les Métazoaires. Les jonctions adhérentes, par le biais de la protéine transmembranaire E-cadhérine (E-cad), assurent une grande partie de l’adhésion intercellulaire. Malgré cette robustesse, les épithéliums peuvent subir des remodelages considérables pendant l’embryogenèse ou la cicatrisation. Lors de la gastrulation de l’embryon de Drosophile, l’épithélium ventro-latéral (la bandelette germinale) subit une élongation le long de l’axe antéropostérieur induite par l’intercalation cellulaire. Le remodelage polarisé des jonctions cellulaires est à la base de ce phénomène: les jonctions parallèles à l’axe dorsoventral (DV) rétrécissent et forment de manière irréversible de nouvelles jonctions parallèles à l’axe antéropostérieur (AP). Ce remodelage dépend de l’enrichissement du moteur moléculaire Myosine II (MyoII) dans les jonctions DV, qui induit une anisotropie de tension. Les protéines des jonctions adhérentes (E-cad, β-catenin) sont, elles aussi, polarisées : elles sont enrichies dans les jonctions AP. Néanmoins, nous ne savions pas si cette polarité de l’adhésion avait un rôle dans le remodelage des jonctions, et nous ne connaissions pas les mécanismes contrôlant cette localisation asymétrique. L’un des mécanismes les mieux connus de la modulation de l’adhésion cellulaire est l’endocytose des protéines d’adhésion. A ce titre, je me suis intéressé au rôle de l’endocytose Clathrine dépendante (ECD) pendant l’intercalation cellulaire. J’ai ainsi pu montrer que l’ECD de E-cad est régulée à la hausse dans la bandelette germinale au niveau jonctionnelle, plus particulièrement au niveau des jonctions DV (qui rétrécissent). L’ECD d’E-cad est nécessaire à l’intercalation et à la distribution polarisée d’E-cad. Elle est régulée par l’organisation de l’actine: la formine Diaphanous ainsi que le moteur moléculaire Myosine II accélèrent le recrutement de la machinerie d’endocytose (AP2 et Clathrine) et régulent la polarité de l’ECD dans l’embryon. Elles sont contrôlées par RhoGEF2, qui est enrichie dans les jonctions DV, et induisent l’endocytose par un mécanisme de clustering latéral d’E-cad. Dans la seconde partie de ma thèse, je me suis intéressé au couplage entre E-cad et la dynamique de MyoII. En effet, l’intercalation dépend aussi de flux contractiles de MyoII qui ont lieu préférentiellement en direction des jonctions DV. J’ai ainsi pu montrer que la direction des flux est induite par les anisotropies de forces d’ancrage de MyoII. Les faibles niveaux d’E-cad et le fort taux d’endocytose dans les jonctions DV augmentent la probabilité de générer une anisotropie d’ancrage et induisent davantage de flux de MyoII vers les jonctions DV. Ce projet met en lumière le rôle fondamental du couplage entre E-cad et MyoII dans la régulation de la morphogenèse. / Epithelia build up strong mechanical and chemichal barriers in Metazoans. Adherens junctions, through the adhesion provided by the transmembrane protein E-cadherin (E-cad), are essential for the mechanical integrity of the tissue. Yet, epithelia can be dramatically remodeled during embryogenesis or wound healing. During gastrulation of Drosophila embryo, the ventrolateral epithelium (the germ band) undergoes a massive elongation along the anteroposterior (AP) axis, driven by cell-cell intercalation. This is based on the polarized remodeling of intercellular junctions whereby junctions parallel to the dorsoventral axis (DV) shrink and form new junctions along AP axis. This remodeling is mediated by the planar polarized enrichment of Myosin II (MyoII) in DV junctions, which generates high tension. Adhesion proteins are also planar polarized, E-cad is enriched in AP junctions, but we did not know if this polarity contributed to cell-cell intercalation and the mechanism driving this polarity. As such, I have studied the role of Clathrin mediated endocytosis (CME) during germ band extension. I have shown that E-cad CME is specifically upregulated at the junction plane in the germ band, and planar polarized (enriched in DV shrinking junctions). It is required for cell-cell intercalation and the planar polarized distribution of E-cad. E-cad CME is regulated by the concerted action of the Formin Diaphanous and Myosin-II, which accelerates CME through the lateral clustering of E-cad. They are controlled by RhoGEF2, which is also enriched in DV junctions. In the second part of my PhD, I have studied the coupling between E-cad and MyoII dynamics. Indeed, planar polarized contractile flows of MyoII are required for DV junction shrinkage, but we did not know the mechanism driving the polarity of these flows. I have shown that the transient anisotropy of anchoring forces between two facing junctions triggers flow. As such, the low steady state amount of E-cad and the high rate of CME in DV junctions trigger more anisotropy and polarize the flow. These results outline the strong crossregulation between E-cad and MyoII and their concerted action in morphogenesis.

Un tissu épithélial est composé de cellules polarisées, étroitement liées les unes aux autres par des jonctions adhérentes. La perte de ces jonctions adhérentes est la première étape dans le développement des cancers au niveau des tissus épithéliaux. Il est donc important de comprendre les mécanismes d’attachement inter-cellulaire. Pour étudier ces interactions, nous utilisons comme modèle l’embryon de drosophile, où une fine régulation des jonctions adhérentes est requise pour l’une des étapes précoces de développement. Durant cette étape du développement, les cellules épithéliales changent de voisines le long de l’axe antéro-postérieur sans perdre leur adhérence cellulaire. Ce processus d’intercalation cellulaire est dû au recrutement polarisé du moteur moléculaire Myosine II au niveau des jonctions qui se désassemblent. Il a été mis en évidence qu’au cours de ce processus la perte de fonction de la voie JAK/STAT perturbe la localisation de la Myosine II. Au cours de ma thèse, j’ai réalisé un crible génétique dans un contexte mutant pour le ligand de la voie JAK/STAT pour me permettre d’identifier des interacteurs potentiellement impliqués dans le contrôle spatial de Myosine II. J’ai pu mettre en évidence plusieurs gènes pouvant être impliqués dans cette intercalation. Parmi ces candidats, je me suis focalisée sur celui montrant le plus fort phénotype : le gène CG13992. La caractérisation de ce gène a fut la seconde étape de mon travail de thèse (car seules les séquences nucléotidiques et protéiques étaient connues). Les résultats obtenus ont permis de mettre en évidence l’implication de ce gène dans la localisation de la Myosine II mais ils restent à confirmer. / Epithelial tissue is composed of polarized cells, which are closely attached to each other by adherens junctions. The loss of adherens junctions is often a key step in the development of cancer in epithelial tissues. It is therefore important to understand the mechanisms of attachment between the cells. To study such epithelial plasticity, we use the Drosophila embryo as a model system, where a fine regulation of adherens junctions is required for one of the early processes of development: germ band elongation. During this process, epithelial cells change their neighbors along the anterior-posterior axis (cell cell intercalation) without loss of cell adhesion. Polarized recruitment of the molecular motor Myosin II at the junctions, that disassemble and reassemble, underlies the intercalation process. In part, intercalation relies on the normal activity of the the JAK / STAT pathway that is crucial for the spatial control of Myosin II. During my PhD, I conducted a genetic screen, in a mutant for the ligand of the JAK / STAT pathway, designed to identify second site interactors for Myosin II control. I identified several genes that appear to be involved in the intercalation process. Among these candidates, I focused on one with the strongest phenotype: the gene CG13992. The functional characterization of this gene was the second stage of my thesis (because only the nucleotide and the protein sequences were known). Preliminary results highlight the involvement of this gene in the localization of Myosin II that remain to be confirmed.

Ce manuscrit de thèse est composé de trois parties dédiées aux développements technologiques nécessaires à l'étude de la polarité et des contraintes mécaniques dans les cellules épithéliales. La première partie décrit les développements technologiques et méthodologiques qui ont été réalisés en micro-fabrication et traitement de surface, acquisition et analyse d'image, et mesure des forces de traction. La deuxième partie décrit l'étude de l'organisation spatiale du système d'adhérence des cellules épithéliales. De la régulation de leur polarité à celle de leur fonction, l'architecture des cellules épithéliales est profondément liée à leur système d'adhérence. Nous avons utilisé les micropatrons adhésifs pour contrôler la géométrie de la matrice extra-cellulaire pour examiner l'effet de l'adhérence des cellules avec la matrice sur la position des zones d'adhérence intercellulaire. Nos résultats montrent que l'organisation spatiale de l'adhérence cellule-matrice joue un rôle déterminant sur celle de l'adhérence intercellulaire. Ils montrent également que cette organisation dirige ensuite la position du centrosome et l'orientation de l'ensemble de la polarité interne. Lors d'une réorganisation spatiale de l'épithélium, comme c'est le cas au cours de la transition épithélium-mésenchyme, les systèmes d'adhérence et la polarité interne subissent tous les deux de profondes modifications. Néanmoins, les cellules semblent capables de les réguler de façon indépendante selon le type de stimulus qui induit la réorganisation. La dernière partie est une analyse des paramètres physiques impliqués dans l'architecture épithéliale. En parallèle des régulations biochimiques, les contraintes mécaniques jouent également un rôle fondamental dans la régulation des processus morphogenétiques. L'association de l'ensemble de nos développements technologiques (patterning de substrat déformable, logiciel de détection et de mesure de force, contrôle du positionnement des cellules) nous a permis d'analyser précisément les propriétés mécaniques des architectures multicellulaires. Nous avons découvert que l'organisation spatiale du système adhérence était un régulateur majeur de l'intensité et de la répartition des forces intra-cellulaires. Cette observation nous a permis de proposer une modification du modèle actuel de distribution des contraintes dans un épithélium qui prend en compte l'anisotropie des forces inter-cellulaires en réponse à l'hétérogénéité de la matrice extra-cellulaire. Ce nouveau modèle physique permet de rendre compte des positions adoptées par les cellules en réponse aux différentes géométries de la matrice extra-cellulaire. / This thesis dissertation is comprised of three major parts. The first part devotes to all the technological developments that have been realized in my thesis study. These developments in microfabrication, in image acquisition and analysis, and in the traction force analysis had solved various problems we have encountered during our study of epithelial architecture. The second part describes the study of the spatial organization of the adhesion systems in epithelia. From their polarity, their functioning, to their remodeling, the epithelial architecture is deeply linked with the adhesion systems. With the capability to well define the location of cell-matrix interaction, we examined how the intercellular adhesion was organized according to the cell-matrix adhesion. Our results highlighted the instructive role of cell-matrix adhesion in organizing the intercellular adhesion. This organization subsequently governed the internal polarity which was indicated by the centrosome positioning. During epithelial remodeling, both the adhesion system and internal polarity were subjected to modification. Nevertheless they could be regulated differently depending on the context of remodeling. The last part is focused on the physical aspect of the epithelial architecture. Apart from the biochemical signaling network, mechanical force is also a substantial ingredient in morphogenesis. Together with our techniques in micropatterning the soft gel, the development of software for traction force microscope, and our knowledge of cell-cell positioning, we were able to analyze precisely the mechanical property of the multicellular architecture. We found that the cellular contractility was modulated by the spatial organization of the adhesion system. It permitted us to complete the current physical model of epithelial geometry with an anisotropic term for contractility. This new physical model could effectively account for the cell positioning on various matrix geometries.

La plupart du temps, les bactéries vivent au sein de biofilms : un tissu biologique accroché sur des surfaces (molles ou solides), qui est composé de bactéries et de matrice extracellulaire. Lors de cette thèse nous avons étudié les mécanismes qui contrôlent la formation d’un biofilm à l’interface eau-air par Bacillus subtilis (BS). D’abord, nous avons observé l’évolution phénotypique de BS au cours du développement de sa population en milieu liquide, dans des conditions de culture standard (pas de biofilm in fine). Nous avons constaté que la population exhibe différents types cellulaires (phénotypes) au cours du temps. Puis, afin d’observer les étapes de la formation d’un biofilm, nous avons créé une expérience qui permet de suivre l’évolution macroscopique de la concentration des bactéries et sa répartition spatiale au sein du milieu de culture. Nous constatons qu’une accumulation de bactéries se forme en dessous de l’interface eau-air avant même l’apparition d’un biofilms. Cette accumulation est concomitante avec de la convection dans le fluide (bioconvection). Le biofilm apparait lors de la phase de croissance de la population en bactérie pour une concentration moyenne dans le milieu de culture de l’ordre de 10¹³ bactéries/m³. Ensuite, nous avons formulé un modèle continu qui renseigne sur l’évolution de l’environnement des bactéries. Ce modèle reproduit la bioconvection observée dans les expériences et révèle son effet sur la concentration en dioxygène dissous dans la culture. Enfin, nous avons construit un modèle hybride continu-discret qui décrit la transition de bactéries déconnectées (nomades) vers des bactéries connectées formant un biofilm solide (sédentaires). Chaque bactérie est considérée comme une particule individuelle. Le modèle tient compte des forces de contact, ainsi que les forces élastiques qui peuvent s’établir entre les bactéries lorsqu’elles sont liées par de la matrice. Un nombre minimal d’aptitudes biologiques a été utilisé pour modéliser les bactéries : la division cellulaire qui leur permet de coloniser le milieu de culture, la motilité et l’aérotactisme qui explique leur migration vers la surface liquide, le quorum sensing (QS) et la différenciation cellulaire qui leur permet de passer du phénotype nomade (motile) au phénotype sédentaire (producteur de matrice). L’environnement en dioxygène des bactéries et les propriétés hydrodynamiques du milieu sont décrits par des champs continus. Le modèle reproduit toutes les étapes de la formation d'un biofilm observées dans nos expériences et confirme la nécessité de certaines aptitudes biologiques. Il montre que le seuil de QS joue un rôle majeur dans la morphologie du biofilm et sa cinétique de formation. En revanche, le taux de consommation de dioxygène par les bactéries ne semble pas avoir de rôle important. Enfin, nous avons établi que la bioconvection agit comme un retardateur de la formation du biofilm. / Most of the time, the bacteria live inside the biofilm: the biological tissue that is attached to the surface (soft or solid), is made of the bacteria and of extracellular matrix. According to this thesis we study the mechanics that control the formation of a biofilm at the interface water-air by Bacillus subtilis (BS). First, we absorbed the phenotype evolution of the BS during the development of its population in liquid medium, under the conditions of a standard culture (no of biofilm in fine). We noticed that the population exhibits different cellular types (phenotypes) during this time. Then, after absorbing the different stages of the development in the formation of a biofilm, we created an experience that allows us to follow the macroscopic evolution of the concentration of the bacteria and its special distribution in the middle of the culture. We found that an accumulation of the bacteria forms under the surface water-air, even before the appearance of a biofilm. This accumulation is concomitant with the conservation in the liquid (bioconvection). The biofilm appears during the growth phase of the bacterial population in an average concentration in the culture medium of about 10¹³ bacteria / m³. Then, we formed a continuous model that shows us the evolution of the environment of the bacteria. This model reproduced the bioconvection that was observed in the experiments and reveals its effect on the concentration of oxygen in the biological culture. Finally we built a hybrid continuous-discreet model that described the transition of the disconnected bacteria (nomads) through the connected bacteria that form a solid biofilm (sedentary). Each bacteria is considered as an individual particle. The model takes the contact forces under consideration, as well as the elastic forces that can settle between the bacteria when linked by the matrix. A minimum number of biological skills were used to form a model from the bacteria; the cellular division that allowed it to colonize the medium biological culture, the motility and the aerotaxi that explains its migration towards the liquid surface, the quorum sensing (QS) and the cellular differentiation that allows them to spend nomadic phenotype (motile) sedentary phenotype (producer of matrix). The dioxygen environment of the bacteria and its middle hydrodynamic properties are described by continuous fields. The model reproduces all the formation steps of an observed biofilm in our experiment and confirms the need of certain biological skills. It shows that the threshold of QS plays a major role in the morphology and biofilm formation kinetics. On the other hand, the rate of diocygen consumption by the bacteria does not seem to have any significant role. Finally, we established that the bioconvection reacts as a retardant in the biofilm formation.

Os sistemas de integração lavoura-pecuária-floresta estão sendo difundidos por todo o território nacional como medida de atenuação dos impactos causados pelo monocultivo e como estratégia de recuperação de pastagens degradadas. Inúmeras vantagens do sistema são apontadas, no entanto, a inclusão de espécies arbóreas modifica a qualidade e a quantidade da luz disponível para o pasto, provocando alteração no seu padrão de crescimento (vertical e horizontal) e produção de forragem. Partindo da hipótese que em um sistema silvipastoril o dossel arbóreo irá determinar a quantidade e a qualidade de luz disponível para o sub-bosque e, assim, influenciar a dinâmica de crescimento e ocupação da área pelo capim-piatã manejado sob pastejo rotativo utilizando metas de interceptação luminosa (IL) prépastejo, o objetivo deste trabalho foi quantificar e descrever as respostas morfogênicas, o padrão de perfilhamento e os processos de ocupação horizontal de Brachiaria brizantha cv BRS Piatã [(Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Stapf. syn. Urochloa brizantha cv. BRS Piatã (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) R.D. Webster] em sistema ILPF de dezembro de 2013 a julho de 2014. O estudo foi desenvolvido por meio de três experimentos realizados de forma concomitante para avaliar três regimes de luz: (1) capim-piatã cultivado em área livre de árvores (pleno sol; PS); (2) sombreamento gerado por meio de fileiras duplas de Eucalipto nas bordaduras dos piquetes (S1); e (3) sombreamento gerado por meio de quatro renques de fileiras triplas de Eucalipto dispostos dentro dos piquetes de forma alternada com porções de pasto (S2). Os regimes de luz S1 e S2 foram divididos em duas faixas de sombra (central e lateral) para descrição da variação da luz dentro dos piquetes. O período experimental foi dividido em três períodos de avaliação em função do índice pluviométrico registrado. Para estudar a influência das árvores sobre a medição de IL, o regime S2 foi manejado utilizando-se dois métodos de tomada da leitura de referência da luz incidente: leitura dentro (sob a copa das árvores) e fora (ausência de árvores) da área experimental. O aumento na densidade de árvores provocou redução na radiação fotossinteticamente ativa (RFA) de 37 e 12% nas faixas lateral e central em S1 (181 árvores.ha-1) e de 53 e 49% para as faixas lateral e central em S2 (718 árvores. ha-1). O sombreamento influenciou praticamente todas as variáveis-resposta avaliadas, resultando em redução do perímetro médios das touceiras (50%), aumento da frequência de touceiras pequenas (perímetro < 30 cm), diminuição da frequência de touceiras grandes (perímetro > 61 cm), diminuição da densidade populacional (35%) e estabilidade da população de perfilhos (6%), aumento das taxas de alongamento de folhas (16%) e de colmos (594%) e em área foliar específica (40%). O método da leitura de referência para avaliação de IL resultou em maior comprimento de folhas (14%) e de colmos (37%) quando as leituras foram feitas dentro comparativamente a fora da área experimental. Pastos sombreados alteram seu padrão de crescimento e ocupação da área como medida para evitar o sombreamento e maximizar a captação de luz, modificações essas importantes para planejar e definir metas de manejo do pastejo em áreas de ILPF. / Crop-livestock-forest systems are becoming increasingly popular in Brazil as a means of attenuating the impact of monoculture and to aid in the recovery of degraded grassland areas. Several advantages of this technique have been highlighted, but the inclusion of trees impacts the quantity and the quality of the light available for forage plants growing beneath them, resulting in changes in forage growth (horizontal and vertical) and in herbage production. Based on the hypothesis that in a silvipastoral system the tree canopy determines the quantity and the quality of the light available for forage plants growing below, and that this affects forage growth dynamics and horizontal spreading in rotationally grazed Piatã brachiariagrass managed using pre-grazing light interception targets during regrowth, the objective of this study was to evaluate the morphogenetic responses, tillering, and horizontal growth of Brachiaria brizantha cv. Piatã [(Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Stapf. syn. Urochloa brizantha cv. BRS Piatã (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) R.D. Webster] in a crop-livestock- forest integration area from December 2013 to July 2014. The study comprised three simultaneous experiments to evaluate three light regimes: (1) Piatã brachiariagrass cultivated in the absence of trees (full natural light; PS); (2) shade produced by a double row of Eucaliptus trees on the edges of the paddocks (S1); and (3) shade produced by four triple rows of Eucaliptus with pasture in between them (S2). The S1 and S2 light regimes were divided into two shade strips (central and lateral) in order to describe the variation in light availability within the paddocks and its implications to plant growth. The experimental period was divided in three evaluation periods according to rainfall. In order to evaluate the influence of the trees on the measurement of sward canopy light interception and its implications on grass growth, paddocks under the S2 light regime were managed using two methods for taking the reference readings of the incident light: reading inside (under the tree canopy) and outside (full natural light) the experimental area. The increase in tree density resulted in a 37 and 12% reduction in photosynthetic active radiation (PAR) for the lateral and central shade strips of S1 (181 trees.ha-1) and 53 and 49% for the lateral and central shade strips of S2 (718 trees.ha-1). Higher shading resulted in reduction in average tussock perimeter (50%), increased presence of small tussocks (perimeter < 30 cm), decreased presence of large tussocks (perimeter > 61 cm), decreased tiller population (35%) and stability index (6%), increased leaf (16%) and stem (594%) elongation rates and increased specific leaf area (40%). Differences among light regimes across evaluation periods were small. Leaves were 14% longer and stems were 37% longer when readings were taken inside compared to those taken outside the experimental area. Under the trees, swards change their growth and spreading patterns as a means of minimizing the effects of shading and maximizing light capture. These changes have important implications for planning and defining targets of grazing management in crop-livestock-forest integration areas.

Characterization of the ontogenic program is essential to infer about palnts adaptation strategies. Frequently, morphogenesis of tropical forage grasses is reported to be analogous to that of temperate forage grasses. However, tropical grasses show stem development still during the vegetative phase of growth and under high light availability conditions. Stem elongation potentially impacts plants growth, with implications for grazing management. In tropical conditions, elephantgrass cv. Napier is considered one of the most productive grass species under grazing. The objective of this study was to characterize the ontogenic development of elephantgrass, coordination between phytomers, stem elongation and leaf and internode coordination in main and primary axes, using an isolated plant protocol. The experiment was conducted in Piracicaba, SP, during the Spring (2015), Summer (2016) and Autumn (2016), using a complete randomized block design, with 4 replicates. Eighty fiber cement tanks (0.343 m3) were used. Each block was composed of 20 tanks, 10 used to evaluate the morphogenic and developmental characteristics and 10 for the destructive evaluations. Measurements of leaf and stem elongation were performed every two days to determine the following variables: leaf appearance rate (LAR), leaf elongation rate (LER), leaf elongation duration (LED) and final leaf length (FLL). From day 10 of the evaluation period in Summer and Autumn and day 25 in Spring, 10 cuts were performed for destructive assessments every 5 days. At the time of the destructive evaluations, the following variables were measured: apical meristem heigth (AMH); sheath tube length (STL); number of expanding leaves (NEL); number of expanded leaves (NEXL). Measurements of sheath length (SL) and internode length (IL) were performed only on the main axis. On the main axis LAR (0.02 leaves degree-days-1) and LER (0.26 cm degree-days-1) were constant, whereas LED and FLL increased with leaf rank on the axis. LED ranged from 150 to 280 degree-days from phytomer 10 to 20. In Autumn, due to flowering, LED decreased with leaf rank. SL increased until reaching a maximum value of approximately 10-12 cm from the phytomer 12-13 onwards. When evaluated in phyllochronic units, similar pattern was observed across seasons of the year for a common leaf rank group. However, in all seasons, higher leaf ranks presented greater LED. Higher LAR were reported for topmost primary axes and LER increased with leaf rank until reaching a maximum, remaining constant afterwards. The LED increased with leaf rank in main and primary axes. The stem elongation began from phytomer 8 on the main axis in all seasons of the year, and in earlier phytomers for the other primary axes. In the main axis, internode length ranged from 0.5-2.0 cm for phytomer 8 until reaching a maximum value of 8-10 cm for phytomers 12-13 onwards, in Spring and Summer. During Autumn, maximum values of internode length were approximately 20 cm. Internode elongation begins concomitantly with the cessation of leaf elongation, and after 5 phyllochronic units from leaf appearance. In all axes, STL increased until reaching a maximum value of approximately 12-13 cm in Summer and 11-12 cm in Spring, coinciding with the beginning of stem elongation. The ontogenic development described for elephantgrass differs from that reported for temperate forage grasses. There was a seasonality effect. Axes development presents a hierarchical and synchronized organization. However, for the upper axes and topmost phytomers behavior is different and needs to be investigated. The stem elongation process can be described by the number of produced leaves. This study provides a key element for understanding phenotypic plasticity and corresponds to an useful information to identify the onset of stem elongation in field conditons. This result can potentially be used for functional-structural plant modelling. / A caracterização do desenvolvimento ontogênico é de fundamental importância para inferir sobre estratégias de adaptação das plantas. Frequentemente, a morfogênese de gramíneas tropicais é reportada como análoga à de gramíneas de clima temperado. No entanto, gramíneas tropicais apresentam colmo ainda na fase vegetativa e com elevada disponibilidade de luz. O alongamento de colmo potencialmente altera a dinâmica do desenvolvimento, com implicações sobre o manejo do pastejo. Em condições tropicais, o capim-elefante cv. Napier é considerado uma das gramíneas mais produtivas sob condições de pastejo. Objetivou-se com esse estudo caracterizar o desenvolvimento ontogênico do capim-elefante, a coordenação entre fitômeros, o alongamento de colmo e a coordenação entre folha e entrenó em perfilhos principais e axilares, em condições de plantas isoladas. O experimento foi conduzido em Piracicaba-SP, durante a Primavera (2015), Verão (2016) e Outono (2016), utilizando um delineamento em blocos completos casualizados, com 4 repetições. Foram instalados 80 tanques de fibrocimento (0,343 m3). Cada bloco era composto por 20 tanques, sendo que 10 foram utilizados para avaliar as características morfogênicas e de desenvolvimento e os outros 10 para as avaliações destrutivas. Medições do alongamento da lâmina foliar e do colmo foram realizadas a cada dois dias, para determinação das variáveis: taxa de aparecimento de folhas (TAF), taxa de alongamento de folhas (TAlF), duração do alongamento de folhas (DAF) e comprimento final da folha (CFF). A partir do dia 10 do período de avaliação no Verão e no Outono e do dia 25 na Primavera, foram feitos 10 cortes para avaliações destrutivas, a cada 5 dias. Por ocasião das avaliações destrutivas, as seguintes variáveis foram medidas: altura do meristema apical (AMA); comprimento do tubo de bainha (CTB); número de folhas em expansão (NFE); número de folhas expandidas (NFEX). Medições da bainha foliar (BF) e do comprimento do entreno (CE) foram realizadas apenas para o eixo principal (perfilho basal). No eixo principal, a TAF (0,02 folhas graus-dias-1) e a TAlF (0,26 cm graus-dias-1) foram constantes, enquanto que a DAF e o CFF aumentou com nível de inserção da folha no perfilho. A DAF variou de 150 a 280 graus-dias do fitômero 10 ao 20. No Outono, em função do florescimento, a DAF diminuiu com o nível de inserção da folha. O comprimento da BF foi crescente até atingir um valor máximo de aproximadamente 10-12 cm do fitômero 12-13 em diante. Quando avaliado em unidades filocrônicas, padrão semelhante foi observado entre épocas do ano para um grupo comum de níveis de inserção de folhas. No entanto, em todas as estações, níveis de inserção de folhas superiores apresentaram maiores DAF. Maiores TAF foram reportadas para eixos primários (perfilhos axilares) localizados acima do nível do solo e a TAlF foi crescente com o nível de inserção da folha até atingir um nível máximo, apartir do qual foi constante. A DAF foi crescente com o nível de inserção da folha em todos os eixos. O alongamento do colmo ocorreu a partir do fitômero 8 no eixo principal em todas as estações do ano, e em fitômeros anteriores para os demais eixos primários. No eixo principal, o CE variou de 0,5-2,0 cm no fitômero 8 até atingir valores máximos de 8-10 cm do fitômero 12-13 em diante, na Primavera e Verão. No Outono, valores máximos de entrenó foram de aproximadamente 20 cm. O alongamento do entrenó inicia-se concomitantemente ao término do alogamento da folha, e a um tempo de 5 filocronos do aparecimento da folha. Em todos os eixos, o CTB aumentou até atingir um valor máximo de aproximadamente 12-13 cm no verão e 11-12 cm na primavera, momento que coincidiu com o início do alongamento do colmo. O desenvolvimento ontogênico descrito para capim-elefante diverge daquele descrito para gramíneas de clima temperado. Houve efeito de sazonalidade. O desenvolvimento dos eixos apresenta organização hierárquica e sincronizada. No entanto, para os eixos superiores e fitômeros acima do nível do solo, o comportamento é diferente. O alongamento do colmo pode ser descrito pelo número de folhas produzidas. Este estudo fornece um elemento-chave para a compreensão da plasticidade fenotítipa e informações úteis para identificar o início do alongamento do colmo no campo. Este resultado pode ser utilizado potencialmente para modelagem de processos estrutura-função da planta.

Die dreidimensionale Sonographie ermöglicht die Beobachtung der menschlichen Morphogenese in utero. Ziel der vorliegenden Untersuchung war die Evaluierung der Darstellung der embryonalen und frühen fetalen Oberflächenmorphogenese mittels transvaginaler 3D-Sonographie unter Anwendung eines neuen Verfahrens (3D-Cut) zur Sichtoptimierung. Fünf Schwangere mit datierten Embryonen wurden longitudinal zwischen der 4. und 12. Woche p.m. transvaginal sonographiert. Die Untersuchungen wurden mit einem 3D-Ultraschallgerät der Firma Kretztechnik (VoluSonâ 530D MT) unter Verwendung einer 3D-Transvaginalsonde (5-8 MHz) durchgeführt. Die 3D-Daten wurden unter Einsatz des 3D-Cut-Verfahrens zu dreidimensionalen Oberflächenmodellen der Embryonen und Feten verarbeitet und mit embryologischen Präparaten gleichen Gestationsalters sowie den Ergebnissen bisheriger 3D-sonoembryologischer Studien verglichen. Die Darstellung der embryonalen und fetalen Oberflächenmorphologie gelang kontinuierlich ab der 6. Woche p.m.. Im chronologischen Verlauf zeigten die beobachteten Embryonen und Feten einen umfangreichen Gestaltwandel von einer C-förmigen Struktur ohne sonographisch fassbare Oberflächendetails hin zu einem Individuum von menschlicher Gestalt. Unter Berücksichtigung der sonographischen Auflösungsgrenzen war eine hohe Übereinstimmung zwischen den sonographischen Oberflächenmodellen und den korrespondierenden embryologischen Präparaten zu verzeichnen. Mit den Ergebnissen 3D-sonoembryologischer Voruntersuchungen ergab sich ebenfalls eine gute Korrelation. Die angewandte sonographische Methode ermöglicht auf nichtinvasive Weise eine detaillierte, systematische dreidimensionale Darstellung von Embryonen und frühen Feten in utero und vermittelt so wertvolle Informationen, die der embryologischen Forschung in dieser Weise bisher nicht zugänglich waren. / Three-dimensional sonography allows the observation of the human morphogenesis in utero. The objective of the presented study was the evaluation of the demonstration of embryonic and early fetal surface morphogenesis by means of transvaginal 3D-sonography using a new procedure (3D-Cut) for the optimization of image quality. Five pregnant women with dated embryos were examined longitudinally by transvaginal 3D-sonography between 3 and 11 completed weeks p.m.. The examinations were performed with a 3D-Ultrasoundmachine (VoluSonâ 530D MT) developed by Kretztechnik (Zipf/Austria) using a transvaginal 5-8 MHz-3D-transducer. The 3D-data were processed to three-dimensional surface models of the embryos and fetuses using the 3D-Cut-procedure and compared with embryologic specimens of corresponding gestational age as well as with the results of prior 3D-sonoembryological studies. Embryonic and early fetal surface morphology could be demonstrated continuously starting from 5 completed weeks p.m.. The observed embryos and fetuses showed an extensive morphological change from a C-shaped structure without sonographically detectable surface details to an individual of human shape. With consideration of the limited sonographic resolution a high agreement between sonographic surface models and the corresponding embryologic specimens was registered. A good correlation was also found with the results of prior 3D-sonoembryological studies. The applied sonographic method allows in a noninvasive way a detailed systematic three-dimensional demonstration of embryos and early fetuses in utero and provides thus valuable information, which was not accessible to embryological research in this way so far.

Objetivou-se com esse trabalho avaliar o efeito das doses de nitrogênio sobre as características morfogênicas, estruturais, crescimento da cultura e no desempenho de novilhos de corte em pastagem de Panicum maximum cv. Mombaça no norte de Tocantins. Os tratamentos consistiram nas aplicações de: 114,2, 228,3 e 342,5 kg/ha de nitrogênio aplicado na forma de sulfato de amônio no período das águas, nos meses de dezembro a abril de 2016. A pastagem foi adubada ainda com 50 kg/ha de P2O5 na forma de superfosfato simples previamente ao experimento, e K2O na forma de KCl, aplicado juntamente com o nitrogênio na proporção 1:0,5. Utilizou-se 24 novilhos Nelore com nove meses de idade e 173 kg de peso vivo médio inicial para avaliação de desempenho e 36 animais reguladores para manter a altura de saída da forragem. A pastagem foi manejada em pastejo rotacionado, com sete dias de pastejo e 21 dias de descanso. Para as medidas relacionadas a morfogênese, estrutura e composição química, foi utilizado o delineamento em blocos casualizados, com medidas repetida no tempo, três tratamentos, dois blocos por tratamento com quatro ciclos e quatro repetições (piquetes) por bloco, avaliando-se a interação entre tratamentos e ciclos. Para avaliação do desempenho animal utilizou-se delineamento inteiramente casualizado, com medidas repetidas no tempo, com três tratamentos, quatro ciclos de pastejo e oito repetições (animais) por tratamento, avaliando a interação entre tratamentos e ciclos. As variáveis foram submetidas a análise de variância a 5% de significância pelo teste t de Student. As maiores doses de nitrogênio não influenciaram a taxa de alongamento foliar, taxa de aparecimento foliar, taxa de alongamento de haste, filocrono e densidade populacional de perfilhos (p>0,05), no entanto, sofreram influência dos ciclos de pastejo (p<0,05), com exceção do filocrono. Com o aumento da dose de N de 114,2 para 342,5 kg o índice de área foliar pré-pastejo aumentou de 8,86 para 13,84 m2. O comprimento final das folhas expandidas sofreu incrementos de 9,6% com a maior dose (p<0,05). A maior dose de nitrogênio aumentou a taxa de crescimento cultural (p<0,05) com valores de 254,74 e 188,41 kg/ha/dia na maior e menor dose, respectivamente. A massa seca de forragem total, das lâminas foliares e de colmo verde prépastejo foram afetadas com a dose de 342,5 kg/ha de N (p<0,05), aumentando em 19,2; 20,7 e 32,6%, respectivamente, em relação a menor dose. Houve redução dos teores de FDN e FDA e aumento da PB (p<0,05) com a elevação das doses de 114,2 para 342,5 kg. O ganho médio diário dos animais não foi influenciado pelos tratamentos (p>0,05), com valor médio de 0,470 kg/animal/dia, no entanto, o ganho por área e a taxa de lotação foram incrementados pela maior dose, sobretudo nos dois ciclos intermediários (2º e 3º), apresentando valores médios de 5,51 e 6,38 kg/ha/dia e taxa de lotação de 5,5 e 7,0 UA/ha nas doses de 114,2 e 342,5kg de nitrogênio, respectivamente. Os parâmetros sanguíneos não foram afetados pelas doses de nitrogênio (p>0,05). Conclui-se que em pastagem de capim-Mombaça as características morfoestruturais relacionadas ao índice de área foliar, comprimento final das folhas e taxa de crescimento cultural aumentam com a elevação das doses de nitrogênio de 114,2 para 342,5 kg/ha/ano de nitrogênio. A massa seca de forragem total e de seus componentes morfológicos é incrementada com doses de 342,5 kg/ha de nitrogênio. A utilização da maior dose nitrogênio melhora a qualidade nutricional do Mombaça, reduzindo os teores de FDN e FDA e elevando a fração de proteína bruta na matéria seca. O aumento das doses de 114,2 para 342,5 kg/ha de nitrogênio não melhora o desempenho individual dos animais, no entanto, aumenta a produtividade por área. / The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of nitrogen doses on morphogenetic characteristics, structural, crop growth and performance of beef steers grazing Panicum maximum cv. Mombasa in northern Tocantins. The treatments consisted of the application: 114.2, 228.3 and 342.5 kg/ha of nitrogen applied in the form of ammonium sulfate in the rainy season (December to April 2016). The pasture was also fertilized with 50 kg/ha P2O5 in the form of superphosphate prior to the experiment, and K2O as KCl, applied together with the nitrogen in the ratio 1: 0.5. Twenty-four Nellore steers with nine months of age and 173 kg average weight for performance evaluation and 36 animals regulators to maintain forage output high. The pasture was managed in a rotational grazing, with seven days of grazing and 21 days rest. For measures related to morphogenesis, structure and chemical composition, was used a randomized block design, with measurements repeated in time, three treatments, two blocks per treatment with four cycles and four replications (paddocks) per block, evaluating the interaction and between treatment cycles. For evaluation of animal performance was used completely randomized design with repeated measurements over time, with three treatments, four grazing cycles and eight repetitions (animals) per treatment, evaluating the interaction between treatments and cycles. The variables were subjected to analysis of variance at 5% significance by Student's t test. Higher doses of nitrogen did not affect the leaf elongation rate, leaf appearance rate, stem elongation rate, phyllochron and tiller population density (p>0.05), however, they suffered influence of grazing cycles (p<0.05), with the exception of phyllochron. With increasing N rate of 114.2 to 342.5 kg pre-grazing the leaf area index increased from 8.86 to 13.84 m2. The final length of the expanded sheets suffered increments of 9.6% with the highest dose (p<0.05). The higher dose of nitrogen increased the cultural growth rate (p<0.05) values of 254.74 and 188.41 kg/ha.day at higher and lower dose, respectively. The dry weight of the total forage, the leaf blades and pre-grazing green stem were affected with the dose of 342.5 kg/ha of N (p<0.05), increasing by 19.2; 20.7 and 32.6%, respectively, compared to lower doses. There was a decrease of NDF and ADF contents and increased BP (p<0.05) with increasing doses of 114.2 to 342.5 kg. The average daily gain of the animals was not affected by treatments (p>0.05), with an average of 0.470 kg/animal.day, however, the gain per area and the stocking rate were increased by the higher dose, particularly in two intermediate cycles (2 and 3), with average values of 5.51 and 6.38 kg/ha.day and stocking rate of 5.5 and 7.0 AU/ha in doses of 114.2 and 342,5kg nitrogen, respectively. The blood parameters were not affected by nitrogen levels (p>0.05). We conclude that in Mombaçagrass grazing the morphostructural characteristics related to leaf area index, final length of the leaves and cultural growth rate increase with the elevation of 114.2 doses of nitrogen to 342.5 kg/ha nitrogen. The dry weight of the total forage and its morphological components is increased with doses of 342.5 kg/ha of nitrogen. The use of higher nitrogen dose improves the nutritional quality of Mombasa, reducing NDF and ADF contents and increasing the crude protein fraction in dry matter. Increasing doses of 114.2 to 342.5 kg/ha of nitrogen does not improve the performance of individual animals, however, increases productivity per area.

Diversos tipos de resíduos industriais já foram testados como fonte de adubação à pastagem, mas pouco se sabe sobre o real potencial do lodo proveniente da indústria de gelatina. Por causa disto, o objetivou-se avaliar o lodo proveniente da indústria de gelatina como adubo e verificar sua interferência nas características agronômicas, morfogênicas, do solo e no capim Piatã ao longo de sucessivos ciclos produtivos. O experimento foi conduzido em Araguaína, Tocantins em Neossolo Quartzarênico Órtico, de fevereiro a novembro de 2013. Foram testados quatro doses de lodo de gelatina numa única aplicação de 0; 50; 150 e 300 m3 ha-1 durante cinco ciclos de corte com 21 dias de descanso e altura de corte de 20 cm. O lodo de gelatina foi capaz de elevar o teor de cálcio e fósforo e não alterou o pH, indicando que não houve restrição do uso por salinização ou acidificação. Verificou-se que o lodo de esgoto modificou positivamente os componentes morfológicos avaliados como também a taxa de crescimento cultural. Foi verificado aumento no número de folhas totais e vivas por perfilho com aumentos lineares no primeiro ciclo produtivo, no qual também verificou-se maior comprimento de bainha correlacionando-se positivamente ao maior comprimento médio de lâminas foliares. O incremento na taxa de aparecimento foliar foi maior que 25% em todos os ciclos com 300 m3 ha-1, sendo que com a elevação da dose ocorreu menor filocrono e maior taxa de alongamento de colmo. O lodo de gelatina promoveu as melhores respostas no primeiro ciclo de pastejo com produtividade de 4149 kg ha-1 de massa seca total e 15,7 g de N kg-1 com 173 m3 ha-1, mas, a dosagem mais eficiente foi de 23,3 m3 ha-1. No terceiro ciclo a dose de 300 m3 ha-1 teve as maiores respostas, mas foram inferiores ao 1º ciclo, no quinto ciclo não teve efeito do lodo. Conclui-se que até a aplicação máxima testada o lodo de gelatina pode ser usado para produção de pastagem. / Many types of industries waste have been thoroughly tested as a source of fertilizer to grassland, but little is known about the real potential of the sludge from gelatin industry as fertilizer to the pasture. The objective this work evaluate the sludge from gelatin industry as fertilizer and verify its agronomic characteristics interference about morphogenetic, and efficiency of use by grass and soil. The experiment was conducted in Araguaína, Tocantins in sand soil, from february to november 2013. Were tested four doses of sludge 0; 50; 150 and 300 m3 ha-1 and its effects in five cutting cycles with 21 days of rest and cutting height of 20 cm. The sludge from gelatin was able to raise the levels of calcium, phosphorus and did not change the pH, indicating that there was no restriction of use by salinisation or acidification. The sewage sludge modified morphological components evaluated positively, increased the values of leaf area index and growth rate. The number of total and leaves alive for tiller there were linear increases in the first production cycle, this also was found greater sheath length correlating positively to average length of leaf blades. The increase in the rate of leaf appearance was greater than 25% in all cycles with 300 m3 ha-1, and with the elevation of dose occurred less filocrono and higher rate of elongation of thatched roofs. The gelatine sludge promoted the best answers in the first grazing cycle with productivity of 4149 kg ha-1 of total dry mass and 15.7 g N kg-1 with 173 m3 ha-1, but the most effective dosage was 23.3 m3 ha-1. In the third cycle the dose of 300 m3 ha-1 had the highest responses, but were lower than the 1st cycle in the fifth cycle had no effect of the treatment. It is concluded that until the maximum tested en the work, the gelatine sludge can use in grass production.