This thesis deals with the selected vertical restraints on competition that occur in the sector of e-commerce, namely resale price maintenance, dual pricing and most-favoured-nation clauses. The thesis raises the research question what stance the European Commission, the Court of Justice of the European Union, and particularly national competition authorities and courts of the Federal Republic of Germany, the French Republic, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the Italian Republic, the Kingdom of the Netherlands and the Kingdom of Sweden take to the above-mentioned practices. The decisions of the authorities are considered in terms of their degree of strictness towards the vertical restraints in question. From a systematic point of view, the thesis is divided into eight chapters. Its subject, basic questions, aims and methods used are outlined in the introductory chapter. The second chapter, which deals with the concept of e-commerce, mainly provides the definition of the scope of the sector under consideration from a material point of view. The third chapter analyses the results of the European Commission's inquiry into the e-commerce sector, especially its conclusions on the functioning of the sector, its features and trends in this sector, particularly with regard to their...

Ce travail est une étude critique du prélèvement, un institut appliqué dans les successions internationales, prévue par l'art. 5 de la Constitution de la République fédérative du Brésil de 1988 et par l'art. 10 § 1 de la Loi d’Introduction aux règles de droit brésilien. Il s’agit d’une règle qui détermine l'application de la loi la plus favorable au conjoint ou aux enfants brésiliens dans les successions des citoyennes étrangères par rapport à biens situés au Brésil, comme résultat d'une comparaison entre la loi brésilienne et la loi du statut personnel du défunt. Il y a un conflit de cette règle avec le principe de l'égalité et ses manifestations dans la Constitution. L’objectif de cette thèse est déterminer les raisons pour l'élimination de l'institut du système juridique brésilien. Pour cela, Il est analysé le cadre conflictuel brésilien pour une adéquate définition du champ d’application de l'institut. Ensuite, il est étudié l'origine et les raisons de son intégration dans le système juridique brésilien. Après, ils sont examinées les difficultés que sa mise en oeuvre avant le scénario de la succession au Brésil. C’est prouvé que la raison pour son élimination, est la violation du principe d'égalité, parce qu’il pratique une discrimination déraisonnable quand il utilise la nationalité comme un moyen de favoriser certains héritières au moment d'attribuer des droits de succession. Enfin, se peut observer une inefficacité des mécanismes de correction a priori et a posteriori du droit international privé pour faire face aux effets néfastes du prélèvement. Ainsi, il est conclu que l’institut doit être éliminé du système juridique brésilien. L'étude suit une méthode inductive, en se fondant sur un cas hypothétique pour mieux exposer des conséquences de l’application de l'institut. Ils sont utilisés les techniques de recherche documentaire et bibliographique. / O presente trabalho constitui um estudo crítico acerca do prélèvement, um instituto aplicado no âmbito das sucessões internacionais, previsto no art. 5° da Constituição da República Federativa do Brasil de 1988 e no art. 10 § 1° da Lei de Introdução às Normas do Direito Brasileiro. Trata-se de uma regra que aponta a aplicação da lei mais favorável ao cônjuge ou filhos brasileiros em sucessões de bens de estrangeiros situados no Brasil, como resultado de uma comparação entre a lei brasileira e a lei do estatuto pessoal do de cujus. Observa-se um conflito dessa regra com o princípio da igualdade e suas manifestações no texto constitucional. Nesta tese questiona-se acerca dos motivos para a eliminação do instituto do ordenamento jurídico brasileiro. Para tanto, analisa-se o quadro conflitual brasileiro para uma adequada definição do campo de aplicação do instituto. Depois, verifica-se a origem do mesmo e os motivos sua incorporação no ordenamento brasileiro. Ainda, analisa-se a dificuldade que apresenta a sua concretização no cenário sucessório brasileiro. Fica provado que o motivo é a violação do princípio da igualdade, em virtude de promover uma discriminação não razoável entre herdeiros. A falta de razoabilidade se observa na utilização do critério nacionalidade como meio para obter o favorecimento na hora de atribuir direitos sucessórios. Por fim, constata-se a ineficácia dos mecanismos de correção a priori e a posteriori do Direito Internacional Privado para resolver os efeitos nocivos do prélèvement. Com isso, conclui-se que o instituto deve ser eliminado do ordenamento jurídico brasileiro. O estudo segue um método indutivo, apoiando-se em um caso hipotético usado para melhor expor as consequências da aplicação do instituto. Utiliza-se das técnicas de pesquisa bibliográfica e documental. / This is a critical study of the prélèvement, an institution applied on international successions, provided under art. 5 of the Constitution of the Federative Republic of Brazil, 1988, and art. 10 § 1 of the Introduction to the Brazilian Law Rules Act. Said institution regulates the application of the most favorable law to the Brazilian spouse or sons in the succession of goods located in Brazil owned by a foreign citizen, as a result of a comparison between Brazilian law and the law of personal status of the deceased. There is a conflict between this rule and the principle of equality and its manifestations in the Constitution. This thesis examines the reasons for the eradication of the prélèvement from the Brazilian legal system. It analyzes the Brazilian conflictual framework for a proper definition of the institution's scope. Then it examines the origins and the reasons for its incorporation into the Brazilian legal system. In addition, it analyzes the difficulties for the application of prélèvement in the Brazilian succession scenario. The reason for its eradication is the violation of the principle of equality, consisting in an unreasonable discrimination between heirs. The lack of reasonableness consists in using the nationality criteria as a mean for preference in the distribution of the inheritance. Finally, the ineffectiveness of a priori and a posteriori Private International Law correction mechanisms to avoid the harmful effects of prélèvement is proven. Thus, the conclusion is that the prélèvement must be eliminated from the Brazilian legal system. The study follows an inductive method, relying on a hypothetical case to better expose the consequences of the application of the institution. Both the documentary and the bibliographical research techniques are used.

Os micro-organismos constituem um grande problema em termos econômicos para a indústria petrolífera. Estes são responsáveis pela produção de substâncias corrosivas e a formação de biofilmes, que causam deterioração dos materiais metálicos. Os principais grupos microbianos presentes em amostras ambientais da indústria do petróleo são as bactérias anaeróbias heterotróficas totais (BANHT) e as bactérias redutoras de sulfato (BRS). Atualmente, a quantificação desses grupos microbianos é realizada através da técnica do Número Mais Provável (NMP) que estima o resultado em aproximadamente 28 dias. Neste trabalho foi otimizada uma metodologia para a microscopia de fluorescência de amostras salinas provenientes de tanques de armazenamento de água/óleo. As condições testadas foram o tipo de óleo de imersão, o tipo de diluente, o volume do corante, o volume da amostra corada e a concentração do fixador (glutaraldeído) numa tentativa de correlacionar com resultados de quantificação de BANHT e BRS através da técnica convencional do NMP. Nesse caso, as células totais foram quantificadas por microscopia de fluorescência utilizando o corante fluorescente laranja de acridina (AO). Verificou-se que houve uma correlação entre os resultados da quantificação de células totais por microscopia de fluorescência e os resultados de BANHT pela técnica do NMP, devido a pouca variação de valores expressos em ambas as quantificações. Entretanto, não foi possível correlacionar os resultados da quantificação de células totais com os resultados de BRS por NMP devido à grande variação dos valores de quantificação de BRS. Na microscopia de fluorescência, foi possível, quantificar os micro-organismos em aproximadamente 30 minutos e através das fotografias, verificou-se ainda que as amostras apresentaram-se nítidas e os micro-organismos com uma boa fluorescência / Microbial cells constitute a severe problem, from the economic point of view, for the petroleum industry. They are responsible for the production of corrosive metabolites and for the formation of biofilms, causing deterioration in the surface of metallic materials. The main microbial groups present in environmental samples from the petroleum industry include total anaerobic heterothrophic bacteria (TANHB) and sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB). Nowadays, the quantification of those microbial groups is performed through the use of the most probable number technique (MPN), providing the final quantification after 28 days. In the present work a new methodology, based on fluorescence microscopy, was optimized on saline samples from water/oil storage tanks. The conditions tested were the type of immersion oil, type of diluent, the volume of the dye, the stained sample volume and concentration of fixative (glutaraldehyde) in order to quantify total cells, in an attempt to correlate with TANHB and SRB quantification through MPN. In that case, total cells were quantified with the help of acrydine orange as fluorescent dye. It could be observed a clear correlation between the results obtained for total cells quantification by fluorescence microscopy and the results obtained for TANHB through MPN technique, due to the negligible differences observed in both quantifications. However, when a correlation with SRB cells was tried results of total cells through fluorescence microscopy did not fit entirely. With the use of fluorescence microscopy, it was possible to quantify microbial cells in around 30 minutes and with the help of photographic reports obtained, it could be observed that the samples were clearly observed and the microbial cells indicated a good fluorescence

<p>This research paper pays particular attention to the EAC because of its unique composition of four LDCs46 and 1 DC47 and the fact that three of these countries are landlocked least developed countries (LLDCs).48 The EAC was notified as a RTA to the WTO under the Enabling Clause on 9 October 2000 and registered as a Custom Union49 under WT/COMTD/N/14.50 The notification of the EAC under the Enabling Clause is due to the nature of composition of members therein and to the fact that the Enabling Clause does not require regional trading arrangements to cover substantially all trade, or to achieve free trade in the bloc within ten years after notification. Additionally, it provides an avenue for giving special consideration to the LDCs through making concessions and contributions,51 allows automatic exemptions from MFN (non-discrimination) treatment in favour of DCs,52 and thus allows other WTO members to accord more favourable treatment to DCs in many cases without according the same treatment to other WTO members.53.</p>

No description available.

<p>The rapid growth in the number of regional trade agreements (RTAs) has led to concern about the weakening of the multilateral trading system. This thesis examines the spread of such agreement and the extent to which they pose a threat to the multilateral system. Regionalism and multilateralism are complimentary as shown in the case study of the East African Community. The current regional trade agreement management rules are weak and ambiguous and possible amendments for these rules are proposed</p>

Στα πλαίσια αυτής της διδακτορικής εργασίας μελετήθηκαν οι εμπορικά σημαντικότερες περιοχές καλλιέργειας και συγκομιδής οστρακοειδών του Ελλαδικού χώρου. Κατά τη διάρκεια περιόδου 18 μηνών πραγματοποιήθηκε μηνιαία συλλογή δειγμάτων στρειδιών (Οstrea edulis) και μυδιών (Mytilus galloprovincialis), τα οποία συλλέχθηκαν από έξι (6) διαφορετικά σημεία του Ελλαδικού χώρου και αναλύθηκαν για τους εντεροϊούς (EV), τους αδενοϊούς (Adv), τον ιό της ηπατίτιδας Α (HAV), τους ιούς Noro I και II (NLVI και NLVII), για το βακτήριο Ε. coli, καθώς και για σωματικούς κολιφάγους, τους F-sperific RNA βακτηριοφάγους και τους βακτηριοφάγους του Β. fragilis. Επιπλέον αναπτύχθηκαν μέθοδοι τόσο για την ανίχνευση παθογόνων ιών ανθρώπινης προέλευσης στα οστρακοειδή, όσο και για την ανίχνευση των "πιθανών δεικτών" αυτών των ιών. Οι μέθοδοι εξετάστηκαν προκειμένου να αξιολογηθεί η απόδοση καλής ποιότητας από όλα τα εργαστήρια μέσω διεργαστηριακών αναλύσεων. Η μέθοδος που εφαρμόστηκε σε αυτή τη μελέτη για την ανίχνευση των ιών στα οστρακοειδή βασίζεται στην εξαγωγή και την ομογενοποίηση του πεπτικού αδένα με χρήση διαλύματος γλυκίνης, pH 10, απομόνωση των νουκλεϊνικών οξέων και ενίσχυση του γονιδιώματος των ιών που αναλύονται. Για την ανίχνευση του βακτηρίου E. coli χρησιμοποιήθηκε η μέθοδος των πολλαπλών σωλήνων, ενώ για την ανίχνευση των βακτηριοφάγων χρησιμοποιήθηκε η μέθοδος καλλιέργειας διπλοστιβάδας. Για το βακτήριο E. coli, σε σύνολο 138 δειγμάτων, 110 δείγματα (ποσοστό 79,7%) βρέθηκαν να ανήκουν στην κατηγορία Α (MPN/100g σάρκας = <20 έως 220), δηλαδή χαρακτηρίζονται σαν δείγματα χαμηλής μόλυνσης, 25 δείγματα (ποσοστό 18,1%) βρέθηκαν να ανήκουν στην κατηγορία Β (MPN/100g σάρκας = 220 έως 3500), οπότε χαρακτηρίζονται σαν δείγματα μεσαίας μόλυνσης, ακατάλληλα προς κατανάλωση χωρίς να προηγηθεί διαδικασία εξυγίανσης, ενώ μόνο 3 δείγματα (ποσοστό 2,2%) βρέθηκαν να ανήκουν στη κατηγορία C (MPN/100g σάρκας =3500 έως >18000), δηλαδή είναι δείγματα υψηλής μόλυνσης. Οι ιοί που εμφανίζονται με μεγαλύτερη συχνότητα στα οστρακοειδή της Ανατολικής Μεσογείου είναι οι αδενοϊοί (34% των δειγμάτων βρέθηκαν θετικά για τους αδενοϊούς) και ακολουθούν οι εντεροϊοί (16,7% των δειγμάτων βρέθηκαν θετικά για τους εντεροϊούς). Αντίθετα, ο ιός της ηπατίτιδας Α (ποσοστό θετικών δειγμάτων = 4,34%), καθώς και οι ιοί Noro I (ποσοστό θετικών δειγμάτων = 2,1%) και Noro II (ποσοστό θετικών δειγμάτων = 1,47%%) εμφανίζονται σε μικρό ποσοστό δειγμάτων. Τέλος, 80 δείγματα (58%) βρέθηκαν θετικά (παρουσία πλακών βακτηριοφάγων) για τους σωματικούς κολιφάγους, με τον αριθμό των πλακών να κυμαίνεται από 71,4 έως 584800 pfp/100g, 52 δείγματα (37,7%) βρέθηκαν θετικά για τους F-specific RNA βακτηριοφάγους (αριθμός των πλακών από 76,2 έως 17051 p100g) και 33 δείγματα (24%) βρέθηκαν θετικά για τους βακτηριοφάγους του Bacteroides fragilis (αριθμός των πλακών από 194.5 έως 5266,25 pfp/100g). Τόσο για το βακτήριο E. coli όσο και για τους βακτηριοφάγους πραγματοποιήθηκαν διεργαστηριακές αναλύσεις προτύπων, οι οποίες οδήγησαν στο συμπέρασμα ότι οι αντίστοιχες μέθοδοι χαρακτηρίζονται ως αξιόπιστες. Η στατιστική ανάλυση έδειξε ότι το βακτήριο E. coli παρουσιάζει θετική συσχέτιση με τους σωματικούς κολιφάγους, αλλά δεν δείχνει στατιστικά σημαντική συσχέτιση ούτε με τους F-specific RNA βακτηριοφάγους, ούτε με κανέναν από τους ιούς εντερικής προέλευσης. Επίσης, θετική συσχέτιση παρουσίασαν οι αδενοϊοί με τους εντεροϊούς, καθώς και οι σωματικοί κολιφάγοι με τους βακτηριοφάγους του B. fragilis. Η μοναδική συσχέτιση μεταξύ ιών εντερικής προέλευσης και βακτηριοφάγων βρέθηκε για τους αδενοϊούς και τους βακτηριοφάγους του B. fragilis. Εάν αυτό επιβεβαιωθεί σε περαιτέρω μελέτες, τότε η συγκεκριμένη κατηγορία βακτηριοφάγων θα μπορούσε να αποτελέσει έναν καλό δείκτη πρόβλεψης της παρουσίας αδενοϊών σε δείγματα οστρακοειδών. Επιπλέον μελετήθηκε η σχέση που μπορεί να υπάρχει μεταξύ των φυσικοχημικών παραμέτρων και των μικροοργανισμών που εξετάστηκαν. Η επεξεργασία αυτή οδήγησε στο συμπέρασμα ότι το βακτήριο E. coli ανιχνεύεται σε μεγαλύτερα ποσά όταν το διαλυμένο οξυγόνο και η περιεκτικότητα σε άλας του ύδατος είναι αυξημένα. Αντίθετα, αύξηση της θερμοκρασίας οδηγεί σε μείωση της ανίχνευσης του βακτηρίου. Επίσης, η περιεκτικότητα σε άλας φαίνεται να επηρεάζει θετικά και τον ιό της ηπατίτιδας Α, αν και ο μικρός αριθμός θετικών δειγμάτων γι’αυτόν τον ιό δεν μπορεί να επιτρέψει την εξαγωγή ασφαλών συμπερασμάτων. Το pH και το διαλυμένο οξυγόνο των υδάτων οδηγεί σε αύξηση της ανίχνευσης των βακτηριοφάγων του B. fragilis, χωρίς όμως να μπορούμε να ισχυριστούμε ότι κάτι τέτοιο ισχύει, λόγω του μικρού αριθμού θετικών δειγμάτων γι’αυτούς τους βακτηριοφάγους. Τέλος, η αύξηση της θερμοκρασίας των υδάτων φαίνεται να οδηγεί και σε αύξηση της παρουσίας των F-specific RNA βακτηριοφάγων, και το ίδιο παρατηρήθηκε και με την αύξηση του διαλυμένου οξυγόνου στο νερό. Η παρούσα μελέτη αποτελεί την πρώτη διεξοδική έρευνα για την ιογενή κοπρανώδη μόλυνση τον οστρακοειδών στην Ελλάδα. Επιπλέον, αντιπροσωπεύει την πρώτη μελέτη σχετικά με τη αποτελεσματικότητα των οργανισμών - δεικτών ιϊκής μόλυνσης, καθώς και για τη συσχέτιση της μικροβιολογικής επιβάρυνσης των οστρακοειδών με τις φυσικοχημικές παραμέτρους του περιβάλλοντος ύδατος. Η μελέτη κατάλληλων δεικτών που σχετίζονται με την παρουσία εντερικών ιών στα οστρακοειδή οδήγησε σε χρήσιμα συμπεράσματα για τη χρήση της ανίχνευσης των βακτηριοφάγων ως δεικτών ιϊκής μόλυνσης. Εντούτοις, απαιτείται περαιτέρω μελέτη προκειμένου να προσδιοριστεί και η χρήση των βακτηριοφάγων ως δεικτών που θα μαρτυρούν την προέλευση (ανθρώπινη ή ζωική) των εντερικών ιών που ανιχνεύονται στα οστρακοειδή. / In this doctorate investigation, important shellfish growing areas of Greece have been defined and studied. Oysters (Ostrea edulis) and mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) were obtained on a monthly basis over an 18 month sampling period. These samples were collected by six (6) different points of Greece and were analyzed for enteroviruses (EV), adenoviruses (Adv), virus of hepatitis A (HAV), Noro viruses I and II (NLVI and NLVII ), bacterium E. coli, as well as for somatic coliphages, F-sperific RNA bacteriophages and bacteriophages of B. fragilis. Moreover, methods were developed for the detection of pathogenic viruses of human origin in the shellfish, as well as for the detection of potential "viral indicators". The methods were examined in order to validate the good quality performance from all the laboratories via interlaboratory analyses. The method that used in this study for the detection of human enteric viruses in the shellfish is based on the export and homogenisation of digestive gland with glycine buffer at pH 10, viral nucleic acid extraction and amplification of the genomes of the analysed human viruses. The procedure applied for detection of E. coli consists on a five tube, three dilution most probable number (MPN) method, while the method for the detection of bacteriophages was the double-agar-layer method. For E. coli analysis, in a total number of 138 samples, 110 samples (79,7%) were found to belong in category A (MPN / 100 g of flesh = < 20 until 220), that it means these samples are characterized as samples of low pollution, 25 samples (18,1%) were found to belong in category B (MPN / 100 g of flesh = 220 until 3500), therefore are characterized as samples of intermediate pollution, inadequate to consumption without precedes process of cleansing, while only 3 samples (2,2%) were found to belong in category C (MPN / 100 g of flesh = 3500 until > 18000), that it means they are samples of high pollution. The viruses that are presented with higher frequency in the shellfish of Eastern Mediterranean are the adenoviruses (34% of samples were found positive for adenoviruses) and follow enteroviruses (16,7% samples they were found positive for enteroviruses). On the contrary, virus of hepatitis A (percentage of positive samples = 4,34%), as well as the Noro I viruses (percentage of positive samples = 2,1%) and Noro II viruses (percentage of positive samples = 1,47%%) are presented in small number of samples. Finally, 80 samples (58%) were found positive (presence of plaques of bacteriophages) for somatic coliphages, with the number of plaques between 71,4 and 584800 pfp / 100 g, 52 samples (37,7%) were found positive for F - specific RNA bacteriophages (number of plaques from 76,2 to 17051 pfp/ 100 g) and 33 samples (24 %) were found positive for the bacteriophages of B. fragilis (number of plaques from 194,5 to 5266,25 pfp / 100 g). Interlaboratory studies involved the testing of reference materials of E. coli and bacteriophages were used as part of the good quality performance assessment program to be applied all over the study, and led to the conclusion that the corresponding methods are characterized by good reliability. According to the statistical analysis of the results, the presence of E. coli seems to be significantly related with the presence of somatic coliphages. However, E. coli do not present significant statistical relation neither with F - specific RNA bacteriophages, nor with all of the viruses of intestinal origin. Also, adenoviruses were significantly related with enteroviruses, as well as somatic coliphages with the bacteriophages of B. fragilis. The unique significant relation between viruses of intestinal origin and bacteriophages was found for the adenoviruses and bacteriophages of B. fragilis. If this is confirmed in further studies, then this category of bacteriophages could constitute a good indicator of forecast of presence adenoviruses in samples of shellfish. Moreover, we studied the relation that can exist between the physic-chemical parameters and the micro-organisms that were examined. This analysis led to the conclusion that E. coli is detected in higher levels when the dissolved oxygen and the salinity of water are increased. On the contrary, increase of temperature leads to reduction of detection of E. coli. Also, the salinity appears to influence positively also virus of hepatitis A, even if the small number of positive samples of this virus cannot allow the export of sure conclusions. The pH and the dissolved oxygen of waters lead to increase of detection of bacteriophages of B. fragilis, but the small number of positive samples for these bacteriophages can’t give safe conclusions. Finally, the increase of temperature of waters appears to lead also to increase of presence of F - specific RNA of bacteriophages, and the same was also observed with the increase of dissolved oxygen in water. This study constitutes the first extensive research for the fecal viral pollution of shellfish in Greece. Moreover, it represents the first study with regard to the effectiveness viral indicators, as well as for the correlation of microbiological parameters of shellfish with the physical-chemical parameters of water. The study of suitable indicators that are related with the presence of enteric viruses in the shellfish led to useful conclusions on the use of detection of bacteriophages as indicators of viral pollution. Nevertheless, further study is required in order to determine also the use of bacteriophages as indicators that will testify the origin (human or animal) of the enteric viruses that are detected in the shellfish.

<p>This research paper pays particular attention to the EAC because of its unique composition of four LDCs46 and 1 DC47 and the fact that three of these countries are landlocked least developed countries (LLDCs).48 The EAC was notified as a RTA to the WTO under the Enabling Clause on 9 October 2000 and registered as a Custom Union49 under WT/COMTD/N/14.50 The notification of the EAC under the Enabling Clause is due to the nature of composition of members therein and to the fact that the Enabling Clause does not require regional trading arrangements to cover substantially all trade, or to achieve free trade in the bloc within ten years after notification. Additionally, it provides an avenue for giving special consideration to the LDCs through making concessions and contributions,51 allows automatic exemptions from MFN (non-discrimination) treatment in favour of DCs,52 and thus allows other WTO members to accord more favourable treatment to DCs in many cases without according the same treatment to other WTO members.53.</p>

<p>The rapid growth in the number of regional trade agreements (RTAs) has led to concern about the weakening of the multilateral trading system. This thesis examines the spread of such agreement and the extent to which they pose a threat to the multilateral system. Regionalism and multilateralism are complimentary as shown in the case study of the East African Community. The current regional trade agreement management rules are weak and ambiguous and possible amendments for these rules are proposed</p>

No description available.