Literature (Beck, 1986:96; Beaver & Brewster, 2002:132; Piaget et al., 2009:1) indicates that the first two years of a baby’s life is a critical period for development. This period is seen as windows of opportunity for development. There is still controversy in the literature regarding if baby stimulation helps babies to reach their neuro-motor development milestones faster, and which type of stimulation is the most advantageous, namely group stimulation or individual stimulation. The first objective of this study was to determine the effect of different methods of stimulation on the motor development of babies between the ages of 3 – 9 months, and secondly to determine what the effect of stimulation administered by a primary caregiver have on the motor development of babies between the ages of 3 – 9 months. A pretest-posttest design was used based on an available random sample where the effect of motor stimulation in different stimulation groups was tested. For objective 1 the babies (N=42) was divided into three different groups and exposed to informal stimulation (n=14), group stimulation as part of a day care program (n=15) and individual stimulation (n=13) administered by a primary caregiver. A nonstandardised checklist was designed by the researcher, refined in a pilot study and completed by the facilitators of the group and individual stimulation programs in which the content of the motor stimulation program was described. During the pretesting phase the babies were tested by the researcher in order to determine their motor milestone developmental status by means of the Peabody Developmental Motor Scales-2-measuring instrument (PDMS-2). This measuring instrument consists of five sub-scales that are converted to a gross motor, fine motor and total motor quotient. After applying the stimulation programs for 12 weeks on a daily basis in the group stimulation and the formal individual stimulation programs, the same aspects of the babies’ motor development was tested again by the PDMS-2. The results showed that after 3 – 9 months old babies were exposed to formal stimulation programs and the data was adjusted for age in months, gender, other activities and pretest results, they did not reach their neuro-motor developmental milestones faster than the babies that were exposed to informal stimulation. The results also show that babies that received individual stimulation administered by a primary caregiver did not reach their milestones faster than babies that only received informal stimulation. However, it seems that individual stimulation administered by a primary caregiver is more beneficial than group stimulation. For objective 2 the subjects (N=27) was divided into two groups and were exposed to informal stimulation (n=14) and individual stimulation (n=13) administered by a primary caregiver. A co-variance of analysis was used and effect sizes were determined for the differences that occurred. The results showed that 3 – 9 months old babies that were exposed to a formal stimulation program did not reach their neuro-motor development milestones faster than babies that were exposed to informal stimulation, because the informal stimulation groups achieved significant (d > 0.2) higher scores for the gross motor (d > 0.24), fine motor (d > 0.27) and total motor quotient (d > 0.33). Individual stimulation showed nonsignificant higher mean values for the reflex (ẋ = 10.30), locomotion (ẋ = 9.16) and visual-motor integration sub-scales (ẋ = 9.45), while informal stimulation showed higher mean values for static balance (ẋ = 11.46) and grasping skills (ẋ = 10.21). The conclusion can be made that simulation whether informal, formal or in a group is beneficial to babies, but the baby must be ready for the specific stimulation. The success of informal stimulation depends on the parents’ knowledge and educational levels. Consequently the same results will not necessarily be achieved by parents that are from a less wealthy environment and that have fewer opportunities to obtain knowledge about the optimal stimulation of babies. / Thesis (M.A. (Kinderkinetics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011

Literature (Beck, 1986:96; Beaver & Brewster, 2002:132; Piaget et al., 2009:1) indicates that the first two years of a baby’s life is a critical period for development. This period is seen as windows of opportunity for development. There is still controversy in the literature regarding if baby stimulation helps babies to reach their neuro-motor development milestones faster, and which type of stimulation is the most advantageous, namely group stimulation or individual stimulation. The first objective of this study was to determine the effect of different methods of stimulation on the motor development of babies between the ages of 3 – 9 months, and secondly to determine what the effect of stimulation administered by a primary caregiver have on the motor development of babies between the ages of 3 – 9 months. A pretest-posttest design was used based on an available random sample where the effect of motor stimulation in different stimulation groups was tested. For objective 1 the babies (N=42) was divided into three different groups and exposed to informal stimulation (n=14), group stimulation as part of a day care program (n=15) and individual stimulation (n=13) administered by a primary caregiver. A nonstandardised checklist was designed by the researcher, refined in a pilot study and completed by the facilitators of the group and individual stimulation programs in which the content of the motor stimulation program was described. During the pretesting phase the babies were tested by the researcher in order to determine their motor milestone developmental status by means of the Peabody Developmental Motor Scales-2-measuring instrument (PDMS-2). This measuring instrument consists of five sub-scales that are converted to a gross motor, fine motor and total motor quotient. After applying the stimulation programs for 12 weeks on a daily basis in the group stimulation and the formal individual stimulation programs, the same aspects of the babies’ motor development was tested again by the PDMS-2. The results showed that after 3 – 9 months old babies were exposed to formal stimulation programs and the data was adjusted for age in months, gender, other activities and pretest results, they did not reach their neuro-motor developmental milestones faster than the babies that were exposed to informal stimulation. The results also show that babies that received individual stimulation administered by a primary caregiver did not reach their milestones faster than babies that only received informal stimulation. However, it seems that individual stimulation administered by a primary caregiver is more beneficial than group stimulation. For objective 2 the subjects (N=27) was divided into two groups and were exposed to informal stimulation (n=14) and individual stimulation (n=13) administered by a primary caregiver. A co-variance of analysis was used and effect sizes were determined for the differences that occurred. The results showed that 3 – 9 months old babies that were exposed to a formal stimulation program did not reach their neuro-motor development milestones faster than babies that were exposed to informal stimulation, because the informal stimulation groups achieved significant (d > 0.2) higher scores for the gross motor (d > 0.24), fine motor (d > 0.27) and total motor quotient (d > 0.33). Individual stimulation showed nonsignificant higher mean values for the reflex (ẋ = 10.30), locomotion (ẋ = 9.16) and visual-motor integration sub-scales (ẋ = 9.45), while informal stimulation showed higher mean values for static balance (ẋ = 11.46) and grasping skills (ẋ = 10.21). The conclusion can be made that simulation whether informal, formal or in a group is beneficial to babies, but the baby must be ready for the specific stimulation. The success of informal stimulation depends on the parents’ knowledge and educational levels. Consequently the same results will not necessarily be achieved by parents that are from a less wealthy environment and that have fewer opportunities to obtain knowledge about the optimal stimulation of babies. / Thesis (M.A. (Kinderkinetics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011

Abstract The Northern Finland 1966 Birth Cohort is an unselected, population-based sample of 12,058 live born children. The present study is based on 10,934 individuals living in Finland at the age of 16 years. Ninety-six research diagnoses fulfilling operational DSM-III-R criteria for schizophrenia by age 34 years were found in the reassessment of clinical diagnoses. Of these 96 cases, 55 (57%) had concordant diagnoses (both the clinical and research diagnosis was schizophrenia) and 41 (43%) had discordant diagnoses (the clinical diagnosis was other than schizophrenia). Diagnostic discordance was associated with low parental social class in 1980, later age at onset, comorbid diagnosis of mental retardation, shorter treatment periods and lower number of treatment episodes. Unwanted pregnancy and parental history of psychosis increased the risk for schizophrenia. The combination of unwantedness of pregnancy and parental history of psychosis elevated the risk of schizophrenia over 8-fold in offspring compared to those without either risk factor. Both low and high birth weight increased the risk of later schizophrenia. Both short and tall babies also had elevated risk. A reverse J-shape curve described the associations between birth weight, length and schizophrenia. The ages when cohort members learned to stand, walk and became potty-trained were related to subsequent incidence of schizophrenia and other psychoses. Earlier milestones reduced and later milestones increased the risk in a linear manner. In conclusion, these results indicate that schizophrenia has complex phenomenology and developmental pathways. Its multiple symptomatology with no single specific defining feature and no absolute validation criteria makes the phenomenological-based diagnosis of schizophrenia challenging. Unwanted pregnancy may act as an additive factor for subjects already vulnerable to schizophrenia and psychoses may have a developmental dimension expressed as deviant foetal development and delayed milestones. These results support the neurodevelopmental theory suggesting that schizophrenia results from small developmental deviances with origins very early in development. / Tiivistelmä Tämän tutkimuksen tavoitteena oli tutkia skitsofrenian diagnostiikan osuvuuteen liittyviä tekijöitä sekä raskauden ei-toivottavuuden, lapsen syntymäpainon ja -pituuden ja skitsofrenian sekä varhaislapsuuden kehityksen ja skitsofrenian ja muiden psykoosien välistä yhteyttä. Pohjois-Suomen vuoden 1966 syntymäkohortti on prospektiivinen, epidemiologinen seurantatutkimus, johon kuuluu 12,058 vuonna1966 syntynyttä lasta. Prospektiivista tietoa on kerätty raskaudesta alkaen elinolosuhteista, elintavoista ja perheestä ja perimästä. Tämä tutkimus perustuu 10,934 henkilöön, jotka ovat asuneet 16-vuotiaana Suomessa eivätkä ole kieltäneet tietojensa käyttämistä tutkimukseen. Kliinisten diagnoosien uudelleen arvioinnissa DSM-III-R:n kriteerit täyttäviä skitsofreniatapauksia 34 ikävuoteen mennessä todettiin 96. Näistä 96 tapauksesta myös 55:n (57 %) kliininen diagnoosi oli skitsofrenia ja 41:n (43 %) kliininen diagnoosi oli muu kuin skitsofrenia. Diagnostiikan epätarkkuus liittyi matalaan sosiaaliluokkaan vuonna 1980, myöhäiseen sairastumisikään, samanaikaiseen kehitysvamma-diagnoosiin, lyhyisiin hoitoaikoihin ja vähäiseen hoitojaksojen määrään. Ei-toivottu raskaus yhdessä vanhemman psykoosisairauden kanssa lisäsi lapsen skitsofrenian riskiä yli 8-kertaiseksi. Matala ja korkea syntymäpaino lisäsivät skitsofrenian riskiä kaksinkertaiseksi ja samansuuruinen riskin kasvu havaittiin myös lapsilla, jotka olivat syntyessään lyhyitä tai pitkiä. J-muotoinen yhteys havaittiin syntymäpainon ja -pituuden sekä skitsofrenian riskin välillä. Ikä, jolloin lapsi oppi seisomaan, kävelemään ja kuivaksi, liittyi myöhempään skitsofreniaan ja sairastumiseen muihin psykooseihin. Varhainen oppiminen laski ja myöhäinen kehitys kohotti riskiä sairastua lineaarisesti. Tutkimuksen tulokset osoittivat, että skitsofrenia on monimuotoinen kliininen oireyhtymä, mikä tekee diagnostiikan haastavaksi. Raskauden ei-toivottavuus liittyneenä vanhemman psykoosisairauteen lisää lapsen skitsofrenian riskiä. Myös poikkeava syntymäpaino ja -pituus lisäävät skitsofrenian riskiä. Psykooseihin voi liittyä kehityksellinen dimensio, joka ilmenee viivästyneenä kehityksenä.