Sna3p and Sna4p are small proteins of unknown function possessing two transmembrane domains and belong to a small family of conserved proteins present in plant and fungi. The budding yeast has four SNA proteins (Sna1–4) that have different localizations in the cell. Sna3p is targeted to the vacuolar lumen by the multivesicular body pathway. Two observations marked Sna3p as a multivesicular body cargo that is sorted in an ubiquitin-independent manner. First, Sna3p-GFP is still correctly transported to internal multivesicular body vesicles under conditions of ubiquitin depletion, which impairs multivesicular body sorting of certain other cargoes. Second, a mutant form of Sna3p-GFP lacking the only potential positions for ubiquitylation is still correctly targeted to the vacuolar lumen. It has thus been postulated that ubiquitylation marks, but not all, membrane proteins for sorting into the interior of the vacuole. In this study we present a further characterization of the Golgi to vacuole trafficking of Sna3p together with its ubiquitylation status. We observed that Sna3p physically interacts with the E3 ligase Rsp5p and that this interaction is essential for sorting of Sna3p to the endosomal pathway. Sna3p is ubiquitylated on its Lys125 residue by Rsp5p and modified by Lys 63-linked ubiquitin chains. In contrast to the conclusions from prior reports, we demonstrated that, as noticed for most other multivesicular body cargoes, Sna3p ubiquitylation is required for its multivesicular body sorting. Sna4p is localized to the vacuolar membrane and interior. Sna4p contains an acidic di-leucine motif, that could be a sorting signal specific for AP-3 dependent pathway directing Sna4p to the vacuolar membrane. In apm3∆ cells, where µ subunit of the AP-3 complex is deleted, Sna4p is missorted to the vacuolar interior. Strikingly, this localization is different from localization of markers of AP-3 dependent pathway. This dissimilarity indicates that Sna4p possesses an additional characteristic, absent in other AP-3 cargoes, driving it to the vacuolar interior. In this study we have shown that the acidic di-leucine motif is indeed the sorting signal of Sna4p to the vacuolar membrane through the AP-3 dependent pathway, and that a part of Sna4p is targeted to the vacuole lumen via the multivesicular body pathway. The ability to enter multivesicular bodies is linked to the c-terminal PPPY sequence of Sna4p. Sna4p interacts with Rsp5p via this PY motif, resulting in Sna4p ubiquitylation on its lysine 128 and incorporation into the multivesicular bodies. Thus, Sna4p possesses two functional sorting signals which allow it to use two different pathways directing the protein to the vacuole.

Carnation Italian ringspot virus (CIRV) is a positive-strand RNA virus that assembles its membrane-bound replication complexes at mitochondria in plant cells. This process is accompanied by extensive inward invagination of the mitochondrial outer membrane, leading to the formation of cytosol-filled spherules, wherein viral RNA synthesis occurs. The mechanism by which CIRV is able to induce spherule formation is unknown, however growing evidence suggests that the host-cell ESCRT (Endosomal Sorting Complex Required for Transport) machinery – a multi-protein complex normally involved in late endosome maturation – may be involved. ESCRT consists of ~30 soluble proteins that form sub-complexes assembled at the late endosomal surface, and function in multivesicular body (MVB) biogenesis. While ESCRT is relatively well characterized in yeasts and mammals, comparably little is known about ESCRT in plants. Hence, as an initial step towards understanding the potential role of ESCRT in CIRV replication, we examined the protein-protein interaction network, subcellular localization, and gene expression profiles of the Arabidopsis thaliana ESCRT components. Overall, the results from these studies suggest that ESCRT organization and function is relatively well conserved in plants compared to other eukaryotes. We also observed that ESCRT is important for CIRV replication, as expression of dominant-negative versions of several key ESCRT components reduced CIRV replication efficiency in plant cells. Moreover, the Arabidopsis ESCRT-I component, Vps23A is recruited from late endosomes to mitochondria in plant cells expressing the CIRV replicase protein, p36, and recruitment of Vps23A was shown to be mediated by sequences located at the N terminus of p36. It was also shown that recruitment of Vp23A to mitochondria by p36 does not require the Ubiquitin E2 Variant domain of Vps23A, which is in contrast to recruitment of ESCRT by retroviruses during viral budding in mammalian cells. Taken together, these results support the hypothesis that CIRV recruits ESCRT by a novel mechanism in order to carry out its replication, a finding that may lend important insight to aspects of normal ESCRT function in plants.

Les récepteurs marqués pour la voie de dégradation lysosomale sont retienu à la membrane endosomale par addition d'ubiquitine. L'invagination de la membrane endosomale incorpore ces récepteurs dans les vésicules intralumenal (ILVs) et mène à leur dégradation au lysosome. AMSH (Associated Molecule of the SH3 domain of STAM) contient un domaine métalloprotéase JAMM au niveau de sa partie C-terminale. Celui-ci a montré, in vitro, la capacité d'hydrolyser les chaînes d'ubiquitine de liaison K-63, laissant supposer une fonction d'élimination des ubiquitines par AMSH avant l'incorporation des récepteurs dans les ILVs. AMSH interagit aussi avec les protéines CHMP (Charged Multivesicular body Protein) d'ESCRT-III (Endosomal Sorting Complex Required for Transport-III) via un N-terminal AMSH MIT domaine. De plus, la liaison d'AMSH avec un domaine C-terminal autoinhibitoire des protéines CHMP a impliqué AMSH dans l'activation de la polymérisation des protéines CHMP, occasionnant un remodelage membranaire suivi de la formation des vésicules. Ce travail montre que AMSH se lie à deux formes de CHMP3; la forme ouverte et active, et la forme fermée et autoinhibée. L'interaction du domaine N-terminal d'AMSH avec ces deux formes de CHMP3 fut évaluée à l'échelle nanomolaire par isothermal titration calorimetry. La structure cristallographique du complexe AMSH domaine N-terminal CHMP3 fut résolue à 1.7Å. Celle-ci présente un mode de liaison CHMP différent des structures déjà déterminées et dévie de l'architecture classique du domaine MIT. On montre que les domaines N-terminal et JAMM d'AMSH interagissent entre eux, et que cette interaction stimule l'activité déubiquitinase du domaine JAMM.

Les exosomes sont des vésicules d'origine endocytaire sécrétées par les cellules dans leur environnement après fusion des endosomes multivésiculés avec la membrane plasmique. Ils représentent un nouveau moyen de communication cellulaire par le transfert intercellulaire de protéines, de lipides et d'ARN. Dans le laboratoire, nous nous intéressons aux rôles que pourraient jouer les exosomes neuronaux dans le système nerveux central. Nous avons montré que les neurones matures sécrètent des exosomes. Nous avons mis en évidence que cette sécrétion est directement reliée à l'activité synaptique glutamatergique et à une entrée de Ca2+. Nous avons également découvert que la partie C-terminale de la chaîne lourde de la toxine du tétanos peut être sécrétée par voie exosomale. Nous avons observé que les exosomes la contenant sont repris par des neurones en culture. Un tel cargo semble d'ailleurs influencer le devenir des exosomes. De plus, pour étudier la recapture des exosomes, nous avons utilisé des exosomes de cellules N2a exprimant la tétraspanine CD63 fusionnée à la GFP. En incubant des neurones d'hippocampe avec des exosomes GFP-CD63, nous sommes parvenus à démontrer qu'ils étaient endocytés par les neurones receveurs. Cependant, bien que les exosomes semblent avoir été internalisés, nos résultats suggèrent que leur trafic serait indépendant de la voie endocytaire classique. Enfin, nous nous sommes intéressé au contenu en ARN des exosomes de N2a et de neurones. Nous avons démontré qu'ils contenaient majoritairement des ARN courts (≤ 200 nucléotides) parmi lesquels, les microARN 132 et 138. Les microARN sont de puissants régulateurs de l'expression génique. Leur transfert, via les exosomes, représenterait une nouvelle voie de régulation très fine et avec un impact conséquent sur le fonctionnement du système nerveux. Les exosomes neuronaux pourraient donc jouer un rôle dans la physiologie normale de la synapse, en permettant l'échange d'ARN et de récepteurs aux neurotransmetteurs entre neurones. Ils pourraient également être impliqués dans la propagation de protéines pathogènes comme la toxine du tétanos et la propagation de certaines maladies neurodégénératives comme Alzheimer et Creutzfeldt-Jacob. L'ensemble de nos résultats suggère que les exosomes joueraient un rôle-clé dans le système nerveux central, de par leur implication dans des processus physiologiques et pathologiques. / Exosomes are vesicles of endocytic origin released by cells into their environment on fusion of multivesicular endosomes with the plasma membrane. They represent a novel mechanism of cell communication by intercellular transfer of proteins, lipids and RNAs. In our laboratory, we are interested in the roles neuronal exosomes could play in the central nervous system. We first showed that mature neurons secrete exosomes and that this is regulated by synaptic glutamatergic activity and by Ca2+ influx. We next demonstrated that the C-terminal part of the tetanus toxin heavy chain can be released in association with neuronal exosomes which can then be taken up by other neurons. Moreover, such a cargo seems to influence the actual fate of the exosome. In order to further examine exosome reuptake, we used exosomes from N2a cells expressing the tetraspanin CD63 fused to the green fluorescent protein, GFP. By incubating cultured hippocampal neurons with GFP-CD63 exosomes, we succeeded in proving that they were found inside the recipient neurons. However, although exosomes are internalized, our results suggest that their traffic is independent of the classical endosomal pathway. We also studied the RNAs contained in the N2a and neuronal exosomes. These were mainly short RNAs (≤ 200 nucleotides) including microRNAs 132 and 138. MicroRNAs are key regulators of gene expression. Their transfer by exosomes could represent a new way for fine regulation with a potentially powerful impact on the nervous system. Neuronal exosomes could play a crucial role in the normal physiology of synapses, by allowing the exchange of RNAs and neurotransmitter receptors between neurons. They could also propagate pathogenic proteins such as tetanus toxin and be involved in neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's and Creutzfeldt-Jacob's diseases. Altogether, our results pave the way towards the demonstration that exosomes play an important part in the functioning of the central nervous system via their involvement in physiological and pathological processes.

Extracellular accumulation of Aβ in β-amyloid plaques is thought to be associated with the neurodegeneration observed in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) patients, although a lack of correlation with cognitive decline raised doubts on this hypothesis. In different transgenic mouse models Aβ accumulates inside the cells and mice develop behavioral deficits well before visible extracellular β-amyloid accumulation. Here we show that intracellular Aβ accumulates in flotillin-1 positive endocytic vesicles. We also demonstrate that flotillin-1 is not only associated with intracellular Aβ in transgenic mice but also with extracellular β-amyloid plaques in AD patient brain sections. / Dieser Beitrag ist mit Zustimmung des Rechteinhabers aufgrund einer (DFG-geförderten) Allianz- bzw. Nationallizenz frei zugänglich.

No description available.

Peroxisome biogenesis is complex, involving a diverse array of intracellular pathways and mechanisms that mediate their biogenesis and cellular functions. Relevant to our understanding of peroxisome biogenesis is the utilization of peroxisomal membranes for viral genome replication as observed in plant cells infected by several members of the Tombusviridae family of positive-strand RNA viruses. Tomato Bushy Stunt Virus (TBSV), for instance, usurps an array of host factors that facilitate the transformation of peroxisomes into peroxisomal multivesicular bodies (pMVB) the sites of viral RNA replication. In this study, pMVB topology and biogenesis was investigated using transmission electron and epifluorescence microscopy of tobacco and wildtype or mutant budding yeast that were transformed with TBSV replicase proteins and a defective interfering viral RNA. Overall, the results suggest that host-virus interactions specifically associated with Endosomal Sorting Complex Required for Transport (ESCRT) and lipid metabolism are involved in TBSV replication and pMVB biogenesis.

No description available.

Les exosomes sont des vésicules membranaires de 30 à 100 nm de diamètre, formées dans les endosomes multivésiculaires et sécrétées par la plupart des cellules. Les propriétés biophysiques et biochimiques des exosomes ainsi que les mécanismes permettant leur biogénèse et sécrétion ont fait l’objet de nombreuses études. Cependant, ces derniers sont encore méconnus, limitant l'analyse des fonctions des exosomes in vivo. Au moins deux mécanismes ont été proposés pour la biogénèse des exosomes : un mécanisme nécessiterait l’action de protéines impliquées dans le tri endosomal, les ESCRT (« endosomalsorting complex required for transport »). Un autre mécanisme serait indépendant de leur fonction. La sécrétion des exosomes, une fois générés dans les endosomes, requiert la petite GTPase, Rab27a, comme montré dans un modèle cellulaire humain. Mes travaux de thèse ont porté sur l’étude des mécanismes moléculaires impliqués dans la biogénèse et la sécrétion des exosomes. Une première étude visant à analyser la fonction de Rab27a dans des cellules murines, m’a permis de mettre en évidence l’existence de différentes populations d’exosomes, dont la sécrétion dépend ou non de Rab27a. Une deuxième étude a eu pour objectif d’analyser l’implication des ESCRT dans la biogénèse des exosomes dans des cellules HeLa CIITA. Le criblage d’une librairie d’ARN d’interférence dirigés contre les différentes protéines ESCRT, a permis l’identification de 7 molécules potentiellement impliquées dans cette voie : HRS, STAM1, TSG101, leur inactivation induisant la diminution de la sécrétion des exosomes. L’inactivation de CHMP4C, VPS4B,VTA1 et ALIX, au contraire, l’augmente. L’inhibition de l’expression de ces candidats suivie de l’analyse des exosomes sécrétés a démontré l’hétérogénéité des vésicules sécrétées, et une modification de leur taille et de leur composition protéique par rapport aux cellules contrôle. Plus particulièrement, l’inactivation d’ALIX induit une augmentation de lasécrétion d‘exosomes de plus grande taille, et l’enrichissement sélectif en molécules de CMH de classe II. En accord, j’ai montré que les cellules inactivées pour ALIX, aussi bien des cellules HeLa que des cellules dendritiques humaines ont une plus forte expression de CMH de classe II à la surface et dans des compartiments intracellulaires. Ces résultats suggèrent l’implication de certains membres de la famille ESCRT dans la voie de biogenèse et sécrétion des exosomes, ainsi qu’un rôle potentiel d’Alix dans le trafic des molécules CMH de classe II, et dans la modulation de la composition protéique des exosomes. / Exosomes are small membrane vesicles with sizes ranging from 30 to 100 nm in diameter, which are formed in multivesicular endosomes and secreted by most cell types. Numerous studies have focused on the biophysical and biochemical properties of exosomes, as well as the mechanisms of biogenesis and secretion of these vesicles. However, these aspects are not fully understood, which limits the analysis of the functions of exosomes in vivo. At least two mechanisms have been proposed for the biogenesis of exosomes : one would rely on the function of proteins involved in endosomal sorting, the ESCRT family (for “endosomal sorting complex required for transport”). Another mechanism would be independent of their activity. Once exosomes are formed in endosomes, their secretion requires the small GTPase RAB27A, as shown in a human cell line. The objective of my PhD project was to gain insights into the molecular mechanisms that drive exosome biogenesis and secretion. A first study performed to analyze the function of Rab27a in murine cells allowed me to show the existence of different populations of exosomes, dependent or not on Rab27a for their secretion. A second study was aimed at analyzing the involvement of ESCRT proteins in exosome biogenesis in HeLa-CIITA cells. Seven molecules potentially involved in this process were identified on the basis of the screening of an RNA interference library directed against the different ESCRT proteins: the inactivation of HRS, STAM1 and TSG101 induced a decrease in exosome secretion, whereas the down regulation of CHMP4C, VPS4B, VTA1 and ALIX increased it. Gene expression of the different candidate proteins was inhibited and exosomes secreted by these cells were analyzed: we showed the heterogeneity of the secreted vesicles, as well as an alteration of their size and protein composition, as compared to control cells. In particular, the inactivation of ALIX induced an increase in the secretion of larger vesicles, and the selective enrichment of these vesicles in MHC class II molecules. Accordingly, I showed that both HeLa-CIITA and human primary dendritic cells inactivated for ALIX possess a higher expression of MHC class II molecules at the cell surface and in intracellular compartments. These results suggest that some members of the ESCRT family are involved in the exosome biogenesis and secretion pathway, and propose a potential role of ALIX in the trafficking of MHC class II molecules and in the modulation of the protein composition of exosomes.

Extracellular accumulation of Aβ in β-amyloid plaques is thought to be associated with the neurodegeneration observed in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) patients, although a lack of correlation with cognitive decline raised doubts on this hypothesis. In different transgenic mouse models Aβ accumulates inside the cells and mice develop behavioral deficits well before visible extracellular β-amyloid accumulation. Here we show that intracellular Aβ accumulates in flotillin-1 positive endocytic vesicles. We also demonstrate that flotillin-1 is not only associated with intracellular Aβ in transgenic mice but also with extracellular β-amyloid plaques in AD patient brain sections. / Dieser Beitrag ist mit Zustimmung des Rechteinhabers aufgrund einer (DFG-geförderten) Allianz- bzw. Nationallizenz frei zugänglich.