Phototransduction is a well characterized system for study of G protein coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling. The GPCR rhodopsin couples to the heterotrimeric G protein transducin. Light-stimulated activation of transducin in turn activates phosphodiesterase (PDE), leading to closure to cGMP-gated channels and inhibition of glutamate release. Rod and cone photoreceptors are highly polarized neurons consisting of the outer segment (OS) where phototransduction biochemistry occurs, the inner segment containing mitochondria and other organelles, the nuclear layer, an axon, and a glutamatergic synapse. Upon illumination, activated G protein transducin redistributes from the rod OS (where it is localized in the dark) to the inner compartments of the cell. Interestingly, cone transducin does not translocate in light. Opposite to this, visual arrestin migrates from the inner compartments to the OS, where it binds to rhodopsin. Previous reports from other groups and our lab argue for either an active or passive mechanism for transducin and arrestin redistribution. Our lab has shown that arrestin migration occurs by diffusion which is restricted by molecular sinks (Nair et al, 2005b). The focus of my dissertation was to unravel the molecular mechanism of rod transducin translocation. Specifically, I found energy (ATP) was not required for transducin movement within photoreceptors. Also, I found that the disc membranes of the rod outer segments as well as protein-protein interactions with retinal guanylate cyclase serve to restrict transducin diffusion through the cell. In addition, I used the insights gained from these studies of transducin to re-examine the relationship of other G proteins' subcellular localization and signal transduction. Ultimately, I found that most G proteins do not undergo subunit dissociation under physiological activating conditions.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Oregon, 2006. / Typescript. Includes vita and abstract. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 101-115). Also available for download via the World Wide Web; free to University of Oregon users.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive, lethal, degenerative disorder of the CNS. The hallmark of this disease is the premature and selective death of upper and lower motor neurons (MNs) in the brain and spinal cord, leading to fatal paralysis. Although the archetypal vision of neurotoxicity in neurodegenerative diseases is based on the idea that a specific neuronal population is particularly vulnerable to a cumulative toxic event (protein aggregation, mitochondria dysfunction, compromised axonal transport etc…), experimental evidence illustrate that ALS possibly does not arise strictly from damage within MNs. There is now convincing data supporting a non-cell autonomous mechanism in which neurodegeneration is influenced by the toxicity of non-neuronal cells in the vicinity of neurons such as astrocytes and microglia. Considering the accumulation of data implicating astrocytes in the pathogenesis of ALS (loss of GLT-1, secretion of toxic factor, enhanced inflammation, etc…), approaches aiming at replacing astrocytes at site of lesions constitute promising therapeutic strategies. Rapid progresses in the characterization of adult stem cell biology have generated considerable enthusiasm for the development of therapeutic strategies for CNS insults. Several observations support the hypothesis that stem cells may display a valuable influence on diseased host tissues by exerting a protective “chaperone” effect to neurons after differentiation in glial cells. Hence, we decided to study the neuroprotective potential of adult mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) in ALS. In contrast to neural stem cells (NSCs) which localization in the central nervous system complicates their isolation, MSCs are easily isolated from the bone marrow. The relevance of using on MSCs in stem cell therapies of neurodegenerative disorders is also justified by their capacity to (trans)differentiate into neural cells. For this purpose, we exposed MSCs to growth factors involved in the astroglial differentiation of NSCs. The differentiation of MSCs was characterized by the acquisition of astrocyte morphology in addition to an increased expression of gene related to NSCs (nestin) and astrocytes (glutamine synthetase). The astroglial differentiation of MSCs is associated with the acquisition of a glial-like specific regulation of the production of GDNF, a potent neurotrophic factor for neurons. Then, we characterized the glutamate uptake in differentiated MSCs, a critical function of astrocytes. Our data demonstrate that the differentiation of MSCs is associated with an increased expression of the high affinity glutamate transporter, GLT-1. Thus, our in vitro results confirm the astrocytic differentiation potential of MSCs and we decided to use then in stem cell therapy of ALS. Indeed, we demonstrated that mechanism of stem cell recruitment is present in the spinal cord during the development of the disease by the secretion of stem cell factor (SCF). We injected MSCs derived from healthy animals into the cerebrospinal fluid of a transgenic rat model of familial ALS (expressing a mutated form of the human superoxide dismutase-1, hSOD1G93A) at disease onset. MSCs were found to infiltrate the nervous parenchyma and migrate substantially into the ventral grey matter by interacting with the SCF. At the site of lesion, MSCs differentiated massively into astrocytes around MNs. The intrathecal delivery of MSCs preserved motor functions and extended the survival of hSOD1G93A rats. Investigation of the lumbar spinal cord 35 days after graft demonstrated that the generation of healthy astrocytes from MSCs decreased motor neuron loss. However, this beneficial effect is not related to a decreased excitotoxicity by the rescue of GLT-1 expression but rather a decreased inflammation around MNs. Together, the data presented in this thesis highlight the protective capacity of adult MSC-derived astrocytes in the treatment of ALS.

The introduction of high density EEG (hd-EEG) nets for easy application on subjects of all ages has improved the possibilities to investigate the development of the infant neurophysiology. This dissertation consists of three studies (I – III) that investigate the visual motion system and mirror neuron system of the infant, and methodological sections that outline the bioelectrical background and the characteristics of the methods used. Study I covers the maturation of cortical areas involved in motion perception in adults and infants using an ERP paradigm. Over three age groups (2, 3 and 5 month olds) the cortical activation increased dramatically. All infant groups showed significant activation when moving displays was contrasted to static displays on a video screen. The study shows that 5-month-old infants and older can be expected to process motion in a similar fashion as adults. Study II covers the infant mirror neuron system (MNS). In adults the mu rhythm perturbations is considered a reliable measure of activation of the MNS. This study presented both a mu rhythm analysis and a ERP analysis to detect MNS activity in 6-month-olds and in adults. This study concludes that the infant MNS can be measured using ERPs and that the development of mu rhythm perturbations requires further study. Study III focused on exploring the mu rhythm suppressions. 8-month-olds observed a live actor that performed goal directed reaches and non-goal directed hand movements. The results show robust mu rhythm perturbations time-locked to the grasping moment. The study concluded that the MNS activity is possible to evaluate by analysis of mu rhythm perturbations and that the MNS show mature characteristics at the age of 8 months. In summary, Study 2 and 3 present new methods to investigate the infant mirror neuron system and shows that the infant MNS is active at 6 months of age. At 8 months of age the infant MNS show mature EEG responses to simple actions such as reaching. How the MNS development relates to the infants’ motor development, and how the MNS interacts with the development of social skills requires further studies that could benefit from the methods presented here.

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease and characterized by the loss of dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra in the midbrain. The causes of the disease are still unknown. The most commonly used treatment is administration of L-DOPA, however, another possible treatment strategy is to transplant DA neurons to the striatum of PD patients to substitute the loss of neurons. Clinical trials have demonstrated beneficial effects from transplantation, but one obstacle with the grafting trials has been the variable outcome, where limited graft reinnervation of the host brain is one important issue to solve. To improve and control the graft DA nerve fiber outgrowth organotypic tissue cultures can be utilized. Cultures of fetal ventral mesencephalon (VM) have been used to investigate astrocytic migration and dopamine nerve fiber formations at different time points and under varying conditions to study how to control nerve fiber formation. The early appearing DA nerve fibers as revealed by tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) –immunoreactivity, form their fibers in the absence of glial cell bodies, are not persistent over time, and is called non-glial-associated TH-positive nerve fiber outgrowth. A monolayer of astrocytes guides a second persistent subpopulation of nerve fibers, the glial-associated TH-positive nerve fiber formation. Investigations of the interactions between the astrocytic migration and nerve fiber formations were made. In embryonic (E) day 14 VM cultures the mitosis of the astrocytes was inhibited with the antimitotic agent β-D-arabinofuranoside. The results revealed decreased astrocytic migration, reduced glial-associated TH-positive outgrowth, and enhanced presence of the non-glial-associated TH-positive outgrowth in the cultures. Thus, astrocytes affect both the non-glial- and the glial-associated growths by either its absence or presence, respectively. The astrocytes synthesize proteoglycans. Therefore the nerve fiber formation was studied in VM or spinal cord cultures treated with the proteoglycan blockers chondroitinase ABC (ChABC), which degrades the proteoglycans, or methyl-umbelliferyl-β-D-xyloside (β-xyloside), which blocks the proteoglycan synthesis. β-xyloside inhibited the migration of the astrocytes and the outgrowth of the glial-associated TH-positive nerve fibers in both VM and spinal cord cultures, whereas ChABC treatment had no effect in E14 VM or spinal cord cultures. E18 VM and spinal cord cultures were evaluated to investigate how the different developmental stages influence astrocytes and the two nerve fiber formations after 14 DIV. No nerve fiber formation was found in E18 VM cultures, while the non-glial-associated nerve fiber outgrowth was obvious as long and robust fibers in E18 spinal cord cultures. The astrocytic migration was similar in VM and spinal cord cultures. β-xyloside and ChABC did not affect nerve fiber growth but astrocytic migration in E18 VM cultures, while no effects was found in the spinal cord cultures. However, the neuronal migration found in control cultures was abolished in both VM and spinal cord cultures after both ChABC and β-xyloside. Neuroinflammation plays a critical role in the development of PD. Increased levels of the proinflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) are observed in postmortem PD brains and the levels of TNFα receptors on circulating T-lymphocytes in cerebrospinal fluid of PD patients are increased. The effects of TNFα were studied on E14 VM cultures. The outgrowth of the non-glial-associated TH-positive nerve fibers was inhibited while it stimulated astrocytic migration and glial-associated TH-positive nerve fiber outgrowth at an early treatment time point. Furthermore, blocking the endogenous levels of TNFα resulted in cell death of the TH-positive neurons. Furthermore, cultures of E14 mice with gene deletion for the protein CD47 were investigated. CD47 is expressed in all tissues and serves as a ligand for the signal regulatory protein (SIRP) α, which promotes e.g migration and synaptogenesis. CD47-/- cultures displayed massive and long non-glial-associated TH-positive nerve fiber outgrowth despite a normal astrocytic migration and the presence of glial-associated TH-positive nerve fiber outgrowth. For the first time, it was observed that the non-glial-guided TH-positive nerve fiber outgrowth did not degenerate after 14 DIV. Taken together, there is an interaction between astrocytes and TH-positive nerve fiber formations. Both nerve fiber formations seem to have their task during the development of the DA system.

Mitofusin 1 and 2 are outer-mitochondrial membrane proteins that have been shown to be involved in fusion. Mitofusin 2 has also been associated with apoptosis and development. When Mfn1 and Mfn2 were each conditionally knocked out from the cerebellum, Purkinje cells in Mfn2 deficient cerebellum during development had undergone neurodegeneration. Mutations in Mfn2 have also been associated with the Charcot Marie Tooth Type 2A (CMT2A). We want to asses the effect Mfn2 and Mfn1 might have on the development of other regions of the brain such as the telencephalon. We generated Mfn1 and Mfn2 conditional knockouts in the telencephalon by crossing them with Foxg1 Cre - a cre expressed in the telencephalon. We found that Mfn1 deficient mice have lost their corpus callosum at the midline, but survive over 6 months with a decrease in progenitor cells postnatally. Mfn2 deficient mice die between P9 and P12 with a decrease in progenitor cells postnatally and a decrease in number of neurons in the cortex. Therefore, our results suggest that Mfn1 and Mfn2 play a significant role in the development of the telencephalon.

Les récepteurs des cytokines à structure α-hélicoïdale sont pour la plupart composés de deux sous-unités transmembranaires associées aux protéine tyrosine kinases de la famille Janus (Tyk2, Jak1, Jak2 et Jak3). La fixation de la cytokine à son récepteur induit une dimérisation des sous-unités ce qui entraîne l'activation des Jak par transphosphorylation. Les Jaks ainsi activées phosphorylent les facteurs de transcription STAT (Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription) qui transloquent dans le noyau. Les tyrosine kinases Jak présentent en position N-terminale un domaine FERM (4.1-ezrin-radixin-moesin), suivi par un domaine dit 'SH2-like' et deux domaines kinases: un domaine dit 'kinase-like' (KL) à fonction régulatrice et un domaine catalytique de type tyrosine kinase en position C-terminale. L'association au récepteur se fait par la région N-terminale. Le laboratoire s'intéresse particulièrement au récepteur de l'interféron de type I (IFNα/β) composé de deux chaînes, IFNAR1 et IFNAR2, et aux kinases Tyk2 et Jak1 auxquels elles s'associent respectivement. La première partie de ma thèse a porté sur l'étude d'un nouveau partenaire de Tyk2, la protéine Pot1 (Partner of Tyk2) et de son rôle potentiel dans la voie de signalisation de l'IFNα. Plusieurs ADNc partiels de Pot1 avaient été isolés dans le laboratoire par criblage double-hybride utilisant comme appât le domaine FERM de Tyk2. Un ADNc complet de Pot1 avait été reconstruit donnant lieu à une protéine de 1003 acides aminés (aa). L'interaction entre cette protéine et les domaines FERM de Tyk2 et de Jak1 avait été confirmée par des expériences in vitro. L'analyse par northern blot de Pot1 montre une expression faible dans plusieurs tissus. L'étude de la localisation de la protéine Pot1 surexprimée avait montré une localisation cytoplasmique au niveau de vésicules non identifiées. Un des aspects de mon travail sur Pot1 a été de déterminer si l'ADNc reconstruit dans le laboratoire, appelé 'lab cDNA', correspond à un vrai transcrit. En effet, les banques de données recensent plusieurs autres transcrits issus du gène Pot1, avec une portion 3' commune et identique au 'lab cDNA', mais une région 5' divergente. Ces transcrits donnent lieu à deux isoformes ne possédant pas les 200 aa ou 250 aa en position N-terminale par rapport à la protéine de référence codée par le 'lab cDNA'. De plus, l'unique protéine murine (mPot1) recensée dans les banques de données ne possède pas les 100 aa en N-terminal par rapport à la protéine humaine de référence. Pour analyser l'expression de différents transcrits, j'ai amplifié l'ADNc de cellules humaines HEK293T avec des primers me permettant de 12 distinguer les différents transcrits. Ces expériences ont permis de confirmer l'expression du transcrit correspondant au 'lab cDNA' et codant pour une isoforme de 1003 aa (112 kDa). Par la suite j'ai étudié la localisation de la protéine Pot1 murine dans les cellules surexprimant mPot1. J'ai observé que mPot1 se trouve dans des vésicules cytoplasmiques, tout comme la protéine humaine, et semble être associée à la membrane de ces vésicules. Toutefois, nous ne pouvons pas écarter la possibilité de localisation inadéquate dû à la forte surexpression de mPot1. Il sera nécessaire de confirmer cette observation par l'analyse de la localisation de la protéine endogène. A ce jour les anticorps disponibles ne permettent pas sa détection. Afin d'évaluer le rôle de Pot1 dans la voie de signalisation de l'IFNα, j'ai mesuré la réponse à l'IFNα de cellules déplétées en Pot1 par interférence à l'ARN. J'ai mesuré la phosphorylation des protéines STAT et l'induction d'un gène rapporteur. Ces expériences ont montré que, dans ce système, la diminution de l'expression de Pot1 n'a pas d'effet sur la signalisation par l'IFNα. Afin d'éclairer la fonction de Pot1, de nouveaux interacteurs de Pot1 ont été recherchés par criblage double-hybride. Parmi les 14 protéines identifiées à haut niveau de confiance, nous nous sommes particulièrement intéressés à GIT1 (G protein-coupled receptor kinase interactor), une protéine adaptatrice impliquée dans de nombreux processus cellulaires, tels que l'internalisation de récepteurs, la signalisation induite par l'EGF (epidermal growth factor) et l'angiotensine II ainsi que la migration cellulaire. Afin d'analyser le rôle éventuel de GIT1 dans la signalisation par l'IFNα, j'ai mesuré plusieurs paramètres (internalisation des sous-unités du récepteur, phosphorylation des STAT, induction d'un gène rapporteur) dans des cellules surexprimant ou déplétées en GIT1. Les résultats obtenus ont écarté l'hypothèse d'une implication de GIT1 dans la réponse transcriptionnelle à l'IFNα. La deuxième partie de mon travail a porté sur l'étude de la mutation V678F introduite dans la protéine Tyk2.Cette substitution est située dans le domaine KL et correspond à la mutation V617F de Jak2, décrite comme étant à l'origine de la Polycythemia vera. La P. vera, ou maladie de Vaquez, est une maladie myéloproliférative caractérisée par une hyperproduction d'érythrocytes et leur hypersensibilité à l'érythropoiétine (Epo). Il a été montré que la mutation V617F induit une augmentation de l'activité kinase de base de Jak2. De même, Jak2V617F induit une prolifération indépendante de facteurs de croissance des cellules murines BaF3, confirmant son potentiel transformant. Toutefois, il a été montré que 13 Jak2V617F nécessite la coexpression d'un récepteur homodimérique, tel que récepteur à l'Epo, pour exercer une activité transformante maximale. Les questions que nous nous sommes posées sont les suivantes: 1) quel est l'effet de la substitution V678F sur l'activité catalytique de Tyk2? 2) quel est l'effet du mutant Tyk2V678F sur la signalisation par l'IFNα? 3) le mutant Tyk2V678F aurait-il un effet plus marquant ou délétère s'il est placé dans un contexte de récepteur homodimérique? A cet effet, nous avons établi, à partir de cellules Tyk2-déficientes, des clones stables exprimant la protéine sauvage ou mutante. Nos résultats montrent que la mutation V678F augmente in vivo et in vitro la capacité de Tyk2 à s'auto-phosphoryler. Par la suite, j'ai mesuré la phosphorylation sur tyrosine des protéines STAT en réponse à l'IFNα. Aucune différence de niveau de phosphorylation de STAT1/2/5 n'a pu être décélée entre les cellules exprimant la protéine sauvage et les cellules exprimant le mutant Tyk2V678F. Par contre, j'ai mis en évidence une phosphorylation basale de STAT3 augmentée en présence de Tyk2V678F. Pour déterminer si cette phosphorylation basale de STAT3 corrèle avec une augmentation de son activité transcriptionnelle, j'ai analysé l'activité transcriptionelle de STAT3 à l'aide d'un gène rapporteur. Les résultats montrent que, dans les cellules exprimant le mutant Tyk2V678F, STAT3 possède une activité transcriptionelle augmentée. Afin d'étudier l'effet du mutant Tyk2V678F placé dans un contexte de récepteur homodimérique, j'ai utilisé des cellules exprimant un récepteur chimérique comprenant l'ectodomaine du récepteur à l'Epo fusionné aux régions transmembranaire et cytoplasmique de la chaîne IFNAR1 (EpoR/R1). A l'aide de ces cellules, j'ai pu confirmer que l'expression du mutant Tyk2V678F engendre une phosphorylation basale de STAT3. De plus, dans ce contexte de récepteur homodimérique, suite à stimulation par le ligand Epo, le mutant Tyk2V678F induit une augmentation ultérieure de la phosphorylation de STAT1, STAT3 et STAT5. Nous avons aussi voulu comparer directement le niveau de phosphorylation de Tyk2V678F et de STAT3 dans différents contextes de récepteurs. Les résultats obtenus montrent que la protéine Tyk2V678F est plus phosphorylée basalement dans les cellules exprimant le récepteur homodimérique EpoR/R1. Ceci est probablement la conséquence d'une transphosphorylation plus efficace de deux kinases mutantes juxtaposées. Par contre, la phosphorylation de STAT3 ne corrèle pas directement avec le niveau d'expression du mutant Tyk2V678F, ce qui suggère une absence de corrélation linéaire entre l'activation de Tyk2 et et de STAT3. 14 En conclusion, nous avons montré que la mutation V678F augmente l'activité catalytique de Tyk2. De plus, le mutant acquiert la capacité de phosphoryler STAT3 et ceci en absence du ligand. Cependant, le mutant Tyk2V678F n'affecte pas la réponse à l'IFNα en terme de phosphorylation de Jak1, STAT1 et STAT2. Ces résultats démontrent une interaction fonctionnelle étroite entre Tyk2 et STAT3. Etant donné que STAT3 constitutivement actif exerce des propriétés oncogéniques et que STAT3 est phosphorylé dans de nombreux cancers, il est possible de prédire aussi un rôle oncogénique pour Tyk2 constitutivement active. Récemment, il a été suggéré qu'un polymorphisme de Tyk2, P1104A, pourrait être associé à la présence de tumeurs. Cette substitution est située dans le domaine tyrosine kinase au sein d'une hélice α présente uniquement dans les membres de la famille Jak. Nous avons introduit cette mutation dans Tyk2 et analysé son effet sur l'activité kinase. Les résultats montrent que le mutant Tyk2P1104A est incapable de s'autophosphoryler in vitro. Toutefois, en réponse à l'IFNα, aucune différence du niveau de phosphorylation de STAT1/2 /3 n'est décélée dans les cellules exprimant Tyk2P1104A par rapport aux cellules exprimant la protéine sauvage. Ces résultats suggèrent que la mutation P1104A abolit la capacité autophosphorylante de l'enzyme, mais n'affecte pas l'activité enzymatique induite par l' l'IFNα envers d'autres substrats in vivo. Ces résultats préliminaires devront être renforcés par des études plus approfondies de l'effet de la mutation P1104A sur la fonction que Tyk2 exerce au sein du récepteur de l'IFNα/β ainsi qu'au sein d'autres récepteurs de cytokines de la réponse immune.

Empathy varies with similarity and familiarity of the other. Since outgroups are seen as dissimilar to the self, empathy might be restricted to the ingroup. We looked at two neural correlates of empathy: mirror neuron system activation as indicated by electroencephalographic mu suppression and prefrontal alpha asymmetry. Non black participants watched videos of ingroup and outgroup members acting and expressing emotions, and then acted and experienced emotions themselves. Due to methodological problems, mirror neuron system activation was not obtained. However, anterior asymmetries indicated avoidance motivation during the experience of sadness and the mere observation of sad ingroup members while participants did not show anterior asymmetry when observing the black outgroup. These findings suggest that empathy is bounded to a closed circle of similar others.

Empathy varies with similarity and familiarity of the other. Since outgroups are seen as dissimilar to the self, empathy might be restricted to the ingroup. We looked at two neural correlates of empathy: mirror neuron system activation as indicated by electroencephalographic mu suppression and prefrontal alpha asymmetry. Non black participants watched videos of ingroup and outgroup members acting and expressing emotions, and then acted and experienced emotions themselves. Due to methodological problems, mirror neuron system activation was not obtained. However, anterior asymmetries indicated avoidance motivation during the experience of sadness and the mere observation of sad ingroup members while participants did not show anterior asymmetry when observing the black outgroup. These findings suggest that empathy is bounded to a closed circle of similar others.

Mitofusin 1 and 2 are outer-mitochondrial membrane proteins that have been shown to be involved in fusion. Mitofusin 2 has also been associated with apoptosis and development. When Mfn1 and Mfn2 were each conditionally knocked out from the cerebellum, Purkinje cells in Mfn2 deficient cerebellum during development had undergone neurodegeneration. Mutations in Mfn2 have also been associated with the Charcot Marie Tooth Type 2A (CMT2A). We want to asses the effect Mfn2 and Mfn1 might have on the development of other regions of the brain such as the telencephalon. We generated Mfn1 and Mfn2 conditional knockouts in the telencephalon by crossing them with Foxg1 Cre - a cre expressed in the telencephalon. We found that Mfn1 deficient mice have lost their corpus callosum at the midline, but survive over 6 months with a decrease in progenitor cells postnatally. Mfn2 deficient mice die between P9 and P12 with a decrease in progenitor cells postnatally and a decrease in number of neurons in the cortex. Therefore, our results suggest that Mfn1 and Mfn2 play a significant role in the development of the telencephalon.