The aim of this work was to find out the social behaviour and interactions among the established group of guinea pigs (Cavia aperea var. porcellus) and the newly assembled groups, with each group being monitored three times, always for 24 hours. A total of 12 short-haired guinea pigs of smooth coat breed with balanced age distribution, divided into three groups, were monitored. The behaviour and activities of guinea pigs were recorded on a camcorder followed with subsequent evaluation of video recordings by means of ethograms and verbal description. Among monitored and evaluated activities were rest and sleep, feed and water intake, comfort behaviour, movement and conflict. In guinea pigs, there were proven differences in behaviour for all of the activities monitored. The individuality of individuals and their different behaviours manifested themselves, with each of them behaving a little bit differently from the others. By comparing the groups, significant differences in behaviour were found. Each individual behaved a little bit differently, but the same pattern of behaviour was not repeated among the groups. Also, it was found that the number of conflicts among guinea pigs decrease overtime for which the guinea pigs are together.

Cães domésticos (Canis familiaris) são animais sociais que apresentam uma série de habilidades cognitivas para interagir com outros cães e com pessoas. Apesar de muitos estudos com cães terem investigado o uso de pistas comunicativas, a sensibilidade a estados de atenção, a capacidade de discriminação de faces e de vocalizações e até o processamento de expressões faciais, ainda não existem evidências de que esses animais são capazes de obter e utilizar simultaneamente informações emocionais de expressões faciais e auditivas. O reconhecimento de estados emocionais pode ser entendido como uma característica adaptativa, uma vez que possui um papel muito importante no contexto social e pode ser crucial para o estabelecimento e manutenção de relacionamentos em longo prazo. Interessados em investigar as habilidades de leitura e compreensão de emoções, utilizamos um paradigma de preferência de olhar para testar cães de família de várias raças em sua habilidade de reconhecer emoções de maneira cross-modal. Analisamos o comportamento visual espontâneo dos sujeitos frente a dois estímulos visuais (mesmo indivíduo, expressão facial diferente) e um som (vocalização) congruente a uma das duas imagens. Utilizamos estímulos caninos e humanos, de fêmeas e machos, com valência positiva e negativa, apresentados do lado esquerdo e do lado direito, e avaliamos seus possíveis efeitos sobre o desempenho dos animais. A variável utilizada para as análises foi o índice de congruência: a proporção de tempo de olhar para a imagem congruente em relação ao tempo total de olhar para as telas. Os cães demonstraram ser capazes de associar informações das faces (fotografias) e das vocalizações (playbacks) e integrá-las em uma única representação mental, independente da espécie, do sexo, da valência e do lado de apresentação do estímulo. O único efeito que encontramos foi o de espécie: apesar dos sujeitos apresentarem a habilidade de reconhecimento tanto para estímulos caninos quanto para humanos, o fizeram de maneira mais robusta para coespecíficos. Isto pode sugerir que a habilidade de reconhecer emoções de maneira cross-modal tenha surgido inicialmente para a comunicação intraespecífica, mas, tendo facilitado a convivência com seres humanos, se desenvolveu para tornar a comunicação interespecífica mais eficiente. O reconhecimento cross-modal pode ser entendido como um reconhecimento verdadeiro e sugere um nível de processamento cognitivo mais alto e mais complexo. Dessa maneira, esta pesquisa traz as primeiras evidências de que cães domésticos são capazes de compreender (perceber e extrair informações relevantes de) as emoções e não apenas discriminá-las. As interações entre um indivíduo e o mundo são multidimensionais e perceber emoções de outros cães e de pessoas pode ser altamente funcional / Domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) are social animals that show a series of cognitive abilities to interact with other dogs and people. Although many studies have investigated the use of communicative cues, the sensitivity to attentional states, the capacity of discriminating faces and vocalizations and even the processing involved in facial expressions exploration, there are no evidences that these animals are capable of obtaining and using emotional information from facial and auditory expressions. The recognition of emotional states may be understood as an adaptive feature, since it plays a very important role in social context and might be crucial to the establishment and maintenance of long term relationship. Interested in investigating the abilities of reading and understanding emotions, we used a preferential looking paradigm to test family dogs of various breeds for their ability to cross-modally recognize emotions. We analysed the spontaneous looking behaviour of subjects when facing two visual stimuli (same individual, different facial expression) and hearing a sound (vocalization) which was congruent to one of the images. We used dogs and humans, females and males, positive valence and negative valence and left-presented and right-presented stimuli to assess their possible effects on the animals performance. The variable used for the analysis was congruence index: the proportion of time looking at the congruent images over the total looking time to the screens. Dogs demonstrated being capable of associating information from faces (photographs) and vocalizations (playbacks) and integrating them in a single mental representation, independent of species, sex, valence or side of stimulus presentation. The only effect we found was of species: although subjects had shown the ability to recognize both canine and human stimuli, they did it in a more robust way towards conspecifics. This may suggest that the ability to cross-modally recognize emotions has initially appeared for intraspecific communication but, having facilitated dog-human interactions, has developed to make the interspecific communication more efficient. Cross-modal recognition can be understood as true recognition and it suggests a higher and more complex level of cognitive processing. Therefore, this research brings the first evidences that domestic dogs are able to understand (perceive and extract relevant information from) emotions and not only discriminate them. The interactions between an individual and the world are multidimensional and reading other dogs and human emotions may be highly functional

Geradas pela globalização, as constantes transformações nas tecnologias, nos meios de comunicação e na sociedade como um todo tornam instáveis as identidades fixadas em repertórios de bens exclusivos de uma comunidade local ou nacional. Isto porque as inovações tecnológicas, o fortalecimento da industrialização e dos meios de comunicação modificaram nossos hábitos e nos deram um horizonte mais cosmopolita, ao mesmo tempo em que unificaram os padrões de consumo, inclusive em relação à Cultura. Mas a cultura nacional não se extingue, e sim se converte, se modifica, se reconstrói para interagir com as diferentes culturas mundiais, de acordo com o mercado consumidor, já que a Indústria Cultural proposta por Adorno (1974) mercadifica os bens culturais. Neste estudo propusemos a análise da figura do Saci, indagando se as narrativas a seu respeito continuam sendo uma maneira de regular o comportamento social, mesmo no mundo globalizado e pudemos verificar o quanto sua figura acabou se modificando para se adequar aos padrões da sociedade. Visto por muitos como a identidade do brasileiro, a figura do Saci não ficou ritualizada, mas foi e continua sendo reconstruída em torno desse processo de mundialização. / Produced by globalization, the constants transformations in the technologies, in the media and in the society at all turns unstable identities fixed in repertories of a local or national communitys exclusive properties. Therefore, because of the technological innovations, the industrializations strength and the media have changed our habits and gave us a more cosmopolitan range of perception, at the same time they have unified the consume patterns, including Culture. But the National Culture doesnt be extinguished; it converts, modifies, reconstructs in order to interchange with world different cultures, according to consumer market, so that Cultural Industry, proposed by Adorno (1974), trades cultural properties. In that study, we have proposed to analyze the Sacis figure, investigating if the narratives in regarding to Saci continue being a way of regularize the social behaviour, even in a globalizated world and we verified how the Sacis figure have been modified in order to be adapted on society patterns. Seen by many people as Brazilians identity, the Sacis figure doesnt be ritualized, but it was and continues being reconstructed around the mundialization process.

his thesis argues that anti-social behaviour orders (ASBOs) are the imperfect expression of a new type of community-based liability which seeks to regulate an individual’s behaviour in the context of his relationship with a particular community. The combination of civil and criminal elements in ASBOs stems from a political will to address responsibility for behaviour which is harmful to a community. Despite the central conceptual role played by the community relationship in ASBOs, legal provisions have failed to define the nature of that relationship, relying on judicial discretion to shape the orders’ application in practice. Judicial interpretation of ASBO legislation confirms the alternative nature of the orders, and the importance of the concept of community in creating a different type of liability. From a theoretical perspective, communitarian principles provide a basis for explaining how the individual/community relationship can justify and shape liability. The figure of a responsible individual constituted by his social interactions forms the premise of this type of liability, and the concept of community in this context is established as a fluid rather than rigid notion, defined as a social group connected by a range of specific interests. A model of community-based liability can be constructed from these principles: interference with a community’s interests can justify the imposition of liability, provided the individual’s behaviour represents a wilful engagement with that particular community. This model of liability provides a useful framework through which to re-examine ASBOs. While the case law broadly adopts the defining elements mentioned above, the use of ASBOs shows examples of misapplications of the principles of a community-based model of liability. Nevertheless, this framework also shows how ASBOs can be seen as a flexible and potentially integrative approach to regulating different types of individual/community relationships, despite the missed opportunities sometimes created by their practical application.

Geradas pela globalização, as constantes transformações nas tecnologias, nos meios de comunicação e na sociedade como um todo tornam instáveis as identidades fixadas em repertórios de bens exclusivos de uma comunidade local ou nacional. Isto porque as inovações tecnológicas, o fortalecimento da industrialização e dos meios de comunicação modificaram nossos hábitos e nos deram um horizonte mais cosmopolita, ao mesmo tempo em que unificaram os padrões de consumo, inclusive em relação à Cultura. Mas a cultura nacional não se extingue, e sim se converte, se modifica, se reconstrói para interagir com as diferentes culturas mundiais, de acordo com o mercado consumidor, já que a Indústria Cultural proposta por Adorno (1974) mercadifica os bens culturais. Neste estudo propusemos a análise da figura do Saci, indagando se as narrativas a seu respeito continuam sendo uma maneira de regular o comportamento social, mesmo no mundo globalizado e pudemos verificar o quanto sua figura acabou se modificando para se adequar aos padrões da sociedade. Visto por muitos como a identidade do brasileiro, a figura do Saci não ficou ritualizada, mas foi e continua sendo reconstruída em torno desse processo de mundialização. / Produced by globalization, the constants transformations in the technologies, in the media and in the society at all turns unstable identities fixed in repertories of a local or national communitys exclusive properties. Therefore, because of the technological innovations, the industrializations strength and the media have changed our habits and gave us a more cosmopolitan range of perception, at the same time they have unified the consume patterns, including Culture. But the National Culture doesnt be extinguished; it converts, modifies, reconstructs in order to interchange with world different cultures, according to consumer market, so that Cultural Industry, proposed by Adorno (1974), trades cultural properties. In that study, we have proposed to analyze the Sacis figure, investigating if the narratives in regarding to Saci continue being a way of regularize the social behaviour, even in a globalizated world and we verified how the Sacis figure have been modified in order to be adapted on society patterns. Seen by many people as Brazilians identity, the Sacis figure doesnt be ritualized, but it was and continues being reconstructed around the mundialization process.

Cães domésticos (Canis familiaris) são animais sociais que apresentam uma série de habilidades cognitivas para interagir com outros cães e com pessoas. Apesar de muitos estudos com cães terem investigado o uso de pistas comunicativas, a sensibilidade a estados de atenção, a capacidade de discriminação de faces e de vocalizações e até o processamento de expressões faciais, ainda não existem evidências de que esses animais são capazes de obter e utilizar simultaneamente informações emocionais de expressões faciais e auditivas. O reconhecimento de estados emocionais pode ser entendido como uma característica adaptativa, uma vez que possui um papel muito importante no contexto social e pode ser crucial para o estabelecimento e manutenção de relacionamentos em longo prazo. Interessados em investigar as habilidades de leitura e compreensão de emoções, utilizamos um paradigma de preferência de olhar para testar cães de família de várias raças em sua habilidade de reconhecer emoções de maneira cross-modal. Analisamos o comportamento visual espontâneo dos sujeitos frente a dois estímulos visuais (mesmo indivíduo, expressão facial diferente) e um som (vocalização) congruente a uma das duas imagens. Utilizamos estímulos caninos e humanos, de fêmeas e machos, com valência positiva e negativa, apresentados do lado esquerdo e do lado direito, e avaliamos seus possíveis efeitos sobre o desempenho dos animais. A variável utilizada para as análises foi o índice de congruência: a proporção de tempo de olhar para a imagem congruente em relação ao tempo total de olhar para as telas. Os cães demonstraram ser capazes de associar informações das faces (fotografias) e das vocalizações (playbacks) e integrá-las em uma única representação mental, independente da espécie, do sexo, da valência e do lado de apresentação do estímulo. O único efeito que encontramos foi o de espécie: apesar dos sujeitos apresentarem a habilidade de reconhecimento tanto para estímulos caninos quanto para humanos, o fizeram de maneira mais robusta para coespecíficos. Isto pode sugerir que a habilidade de reconhecer emoções de maneira cross-modal tenha surgido inicialmente para a comunicação intraespecífica, mas, tendo facilitado a convivência com seres humanos, se desenvolveu para tornar a comunicação interespecífica mais eficiente. O reconhecimento cross-modal pode ser entendido como um reconhecimento verdadeiro e sugere um nível de processamento cognitivo mais alto e mais complexo. Dessa maneira, esta pesquisa traz as primeiras evidências de que cães domésticos são capazes de compreender (perceber e extrair informações relevantes de) as emoções e não apenas discriminá-las. As interações entre um indivíduo e o mundo são multidimensionais e perceber emoções de outros cães e de pessoas pode ser altamente funcional / Domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) are social animals that show a series of cognitive abilities to interact with other dogs and people. Although many studies have investigated the use of communicative cues, the sensitivity to attentional states, the capacity of discriminating faces and vocalizations and even the processing involved in facial expressions exploration, there are no evidences that these animals are capable of obtaining and using emotional information from facial and auditory expressions. The recognition of emotional states may be understood as an adaptive feature, since it plays a very important role in social context and might be crucial to the establishment and maintenance of long term relationship. Interested in investigating the abilities of reading and understanding emotions, we used a preferential looking paradigm to test family dogs of various breeds for their ability to cross-modally recognize emotions. We analysed the spontaneous looking behaviour of subjects when facing two visual stimuli (same individual, different facial expression) and hearing a sound (vocalization) which was congruent to one of the images. We used dogs and humans, females and males, positive valence and negative valence and left-presented and right-presented stimuli to assess their possible effects on the animals performance. The variable used for the analysis was congruence index: the proportion of time looking at the congruent images over the total looking time to the screens. Dogs demonstrated being capable of associating information from faces (photographs) and vocalizations (playbacks) and integrating them in a single mental representation, independent of species, sex, valence or side of stimulus presentation. The only effect we found was of species: although subjects had shown the ability to recognize both canine and human stimuli, they did it in a more robust way towards conspecifics. This may suggest that the ability to cross-modally recognize emotions has initially appeared for intraspecific communication but, having facilitated dog-human interactions, has developed to make the interspecific communication more efficient. Cross-modal recognition can be understood as true recognition and it suggests a higher and more complex level of cognitive processing. Therefore, this research brings the first evidences that domestic dogs are able to understand (perceive and extract relevant information from) emotions and not only discriminate them. The interactions between an individual and the world are multidimensional and reading other dogs and human emotions may be highly functional

The European rabbit lives in defined social groups of between two and about twenty individuals. There are distinct social hierarchies within each group. Rabbits are known to scent-mark their environment with secretions from several glands, and the secretion of the submandibular cutaneous gland is strongly correlated with social status. Dominant, male rabbits have a higher secretory activity of the gland, and show much more scent-marking behaviour than do any other individuals within the social group. This study was principally conducted at Hope Farm, Cattai National Park in New South Wales, Australia.The proteinaceous components of the secretion varied between individuals, but the protein profile of an individual did not change over time.It was found that dominant rabbits chin mark preferentially at the entrances to warrens, and at the boundaries of their territory.The work in this study provides new insights into the way that rabbit semiochemical messages work. The difference between the secretion of a subordinate and a dominant rabbit appears to be due to the presence or absence of one compound, 2-phenoxy ethanol. This compound, with known fixative properties, supports the idea that the only difference between dominant and subordinate secretions is whether or not they persist in the environment after marking. Such a mechanism for asserting dominance may be much more common in mammals than is apparent from the published literature / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

For the last several years a great deal of research has been carried out under the general heading of Consumer Behaviour. Researchers are studying consumer purchasing behaviour in all of its many facets and a great deal of additional highly useful information has become available to marketing scholars and practitioners. Generally these researchers have utilized as a basis for their research one of the current models of consumer behaviour as proposed by the recognized scholars in the field. These models although different contain many similarities. They all are multi-dimensional, containing many elements which interact to Influence the consumer's decision making process. (A more thorough discussion of the various models occurs later. ) Most of the recent research projects have been concentrated on one of the elements, in a logical way, in order to extend the amount of knowledge available concerning the element and how It interacts with the remaining aspects of the model. Inasmuch as the majority of this research is being carried on by researchers in the United States (U. S. ) utilizing the marketing/economic/sociocultural environment of the U. S., it is the writer's contention that not all of these research findings are automatically applicable or useful on a world-wide basis. Indeed, if one is concerned with a different country, for example the United Kingdom (U. K. ) or Canada, in which there exists a differing marketing, economic or sociocultural environment, then one must view the U. S. oriented research results not with scepticism but at least with some apprehension and with a questioning attitude. It is this attitude which led the writer to question the lack of concern and therefore research pertaining to certain aspects of the element "social influences". One of the multi-dimensional aspects mentioned above which, although not uniformly labelled in the various models of consumer behaviour, does appear to be common to these models, is "social influences". The major elements which the writer has identified within this "social influences" dimension are social class, family and culture. Although different researchers have utilized variations in the definitions, and therefore the sub-elements which are included in each of these three elements, it is a truism that a transposed cultural background (or ethnic background) i. e. immigration, is either not considered, or at best briefly noted and thereafter ignored or overlooked. - This lack of references to immigration and the apparent little amount of thought given to the various ethnic backgrounds represented by immigrants disturbed the researcher so for the purposes of this study it was decided to concentrate on ethnic background in order to clearly establish the validity of considering ethnic background as a major social influence of consumer purchasing behaviour, or to validate the position taken by other U. S. oriented researchers, I. e. that ethnic background is not a major influence on consumer purchasing behaviour and can be overlooked. Thus this study is primarily concerned with only two aspects of the models of consumer behaviour: family purchasing and culture. The study is not concerned with the culture in place in the environment but instead with transposed cultures via immigration.

Sozialität ist vorteilhaft für Individuen. Sozialbeziehungen zwischen Individuen können als langfristige Investitionen betrachtet werden, die letztlich individuelle Fitness beeinflussen. Die Analyse der Kosten und Nutzen von Sozialbeziehungen kann daher dazu dienen, herauszufinden wie Individuen mit den Kosten (Wettbewerb) und Vorteilen (Kooperation) vom Gruppenleben umgehen. Theoretische Modelle, die zur Erklärung der existierenden Diversität von Sozialstrukturen im Tierreich dienen, basieren auf der Analyse ökologischer, genetischer, ontogenetischer, phylogenetischer und anderer sozialer Faktoren. In Säugetieren entwickeln Weibchen häufig intensive soziale Bindungen. Diese Bindungen werden häufig stark von Dominanz- und Verwandtschaftsbeziehungen geprägt, was wiederum Konsequenzen hat für Kooperation im Allgemeinen. Es ist jedoch noch größtenteils unklar, wie Unterschiede in der Stärke und Qualität von solchen sozialen Bindungen auftreten, insbesondere in Bezug auf den Typ der Gesellschaft in der sie auftreten, beispielsweise ob eine Gesellschaft eher despotisch oder egalitär organisiert ist. Obwohl alle Makakenarten (Gattung Macaca) eine gemeinsame Art von sozialer Organisation teilen (Mehrmännchen/Mehrweibchen Gruppen, Philopatrie der Weibchen), treten gleichzeitig markante Unterschiede im Sozialverhalten zwischen den einzelnen Arten auf. Die Unterschiede wurden anhand verschiedener Faktoren erklärt, die von Ökologie bis hin zu Phylogenie reichen, was wiederum zur Klassifizierung der Arten in verschiedene Kategorien führte. Ein Problem dabei ist, jedoch, dass bisher nur einige wenige Makakenarten sehr intensiv erforscht wurden, während viele andere Arten bisher stark vernachlässigt wurden. Diese Unausgeglichenheit unterhöhlt unser Verständnis der Diversität der verschiedenen Sozialsysteme. Das übergeordnete Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es, durch die Erforschung einer der bisher weniger bekannten Arten, dem Schopfmakaken M. nigra, unser Wissen und Verständnis über die Verhaltensdiversität innerhalb der Makaken zu erweitern. Das erste untergeordnete Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es, den Grad sozialer Toleranz zwischen Weibchen zu quantifizieren (Studie 1). Danach erläutere ich die Struktur und Funktion von Sozialbeziehungen zwischen Weibchen. Ich beschreibe die Interaktionen die direkt nach Konflikten stattfinden (Studie 2), und untersuche den Einfluss von Dominanz- und Verwandtschaftsbeziehungen auf Sozialverhalten (Studie 3). Insgesamt können die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit dazu beitragen, das Zusammenspiel verschiedener Faktoren besser zu verstehen, insbesondere durch den Vergleich der in Schopfmakaken gefundenen Muster mit denen anderer Arten. Darauf aufbauend wird ein theoretischer Rahmen vorgeschlagen, der die Evolution unterschiedlicher Sozialstrukturen im Tierreich zu vereinen sucht. In der ersten Studie quantifiziere ich eine umfangreiche Reihe von Verhaltensparametern, die dazu geeignet sind den sozialen Stil einer Art zu bestimmen. Die Ergebnisse dieser Studie bestätigen einen toleranten sozialen Stil weiblicher Schopfmakaken, der sich durch Konflikte mit niedriger Intensität, häufiger bidirektionalität, und versöhnung ausdrückt. Asymmetrie in Dominanzbeziehungen ist moderat, was unter anderem durch den bidirektionalen und affiliativen Gebrauch der bared-teeth Geste ausgedrückt wird. Weiterhin tolerieren Weibchen gegenseitige räumliche Nähe. Diese Muster stimmen mit denen anderer toleranter Makakenarten überein und liegen außerhalb der für despotische Arten beschriebenen Variation. In der zweiten Studie untersuche ich die Determinanten und Funktionen von Interaktionen die nach Konflikten stattfinden. Die Kosten von Aggression werden durch Verhaltensindikatoren für Stress gemessen. Weiterhin untersuche ich, ob Charakteristika von Konflikten (z.B. Intensität, Entschiedenheit, Kontext) und der beteiligten Paare (Stärke der sozialen Bande, Häufigkeit von Unterstützung in Konflikten), das Auftreten von Interaktionen nach einem Konflikt beeinflussen. Dabei teste ich vier mögliche Funktionen von nach-Konflikt-Interaktionen. Wenig spricht dafür, dass Aggression Kosten beinhaltet, gemessen durch Verhaltensindikatoren für Stress. Es scheint deshalb unwahrscheinlich, dass Interaktionen nach einem Konflikt dazu dienen solchen Stress zu reduzieren. Ebenso unwahrscheinlich scheint es, dass solche Interaktionen dazu dienen die Beziehung zwischen den Tieren zu „reparieren“. Im Gegensatz dazu unterstützen die Muster der Initiationen und Richtungen der nach-Konflikt Interaktionen die Hypothese, dass Versöhnung ein Signal für freundliche Intention ist, und dass Interaktionen mit Dritten dem Schutz vor erneuter Aggression dienen. Auch diese Ergebnisse weisen auf den toleranten sozialen Stil von Schopfmakaken hin und kontrastieren mit den Ergebnissen von Studien anderer Makaken- und Tierarten. Die abschließende Studie beschreibt den Einfluss von Dominanz und Verwandtschaft auf Sozialbeziehungen. Dafür untersuche ich Verbindungen zwischen Dominanz, Verwandtschaft, Alter, sozialen Bindungen, Unterstützung in Konflikten, und soziale Toleranz (Versöhnung und Nahrungsaufnahme in der Nähe anderer Individuen). Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass hochrangige Weibchen als soziale Partner nicht attraktiver sind als niederrangige Weibchen, und dass Dominanzbeziehungen unabhängig vom Verwandtschaftsgrad sind. Weiterhin kann ich zeigen, dass die stärksten sozialen Bindungen zwischen verwandten Weibchen auftreten, die einen ähnlichen Rang haben und gleichaltrig sind. Im Gegensatz dazu, tritt Unterstützung in Konflikten am häufigsten zwischen Tieren gleichen Ranges und Alters auf, unabhängig vom Verwandtschaftsgrad und der Stärke der sozialen Bindung. Des weiteren konnte keine Beziehung zwischen den getesteten Parametern und sozialer Toleranz gefunden werden. Diese differenzierten Effekte von Beziehungs-Charakteristika unterstreichen die Komplexität des sozialen Lebens in Schopfmakaken. In solch toleranten Gesellschaften formen Weibchen weitreichende und diversifizierte Netzwerke. Durch die Kombination von Verhaltens- und genetischen Daten, stellt diese Arbeit die erste umfassende Studie über Sozialverhalten unter natürlichen Bedingungen dar, an einer Art über die bisher relativ wenig bekannt ist. Die erste Studie unterstützt die Idee, dass soziale Stile als „Cluster“ von sozialen Verhaltensweisen betrachtet werden können. Diese Cluster variieren um einen Modalwert und ähneln sich innerhalb von Arten mehr als zwischen Arten und Gruppen von Arten. Damit können sie auch als coping Strategien oder Verhaltenssyndrome betrachtet werden. Weiterhin konnte der geringe Einfluss von Dominanz- und Verwandtschaftsbeziehungen auf die Stärke von sozialen Bindungen nachgewiesen werden, sowie die Abwesenheit eines Effektes der Stärke von sozialen Bindungen auf Koalitionen, Versöhnung, und Nahrungsaufnahme in der Nähe anderer Individuen. Diese Ergebnisse werfen die Frage auf, welchen adaptiven Wert starke soziale Bindungen haben, angesichts ihrer Diversität in Arten in denen soziale Netzwerke gebildet werden. Es kann daher angenommen werden, dass solche Unterschiede zwischen toleranten und despotischen Strategien im evolutionären Kontext bedeutungsvoll waren. Die vorherrschenden Theorien sozialer Evolution können einen großen Teil der auftretenden Variation im Sozialverhalten nicht ausreichend erklären. Mit dieser Arbeit schlage ich deshalb vor, soziale Stile von Makaken besser als coping Strategien oder Verhaltenssyndrome zu betrachten, die sich evolutiv entwickelten, um letztlich die Probleme zu lösen, die mit dem Leben in sozialen Gruppen einhergehen. Im Rahmen von Verhaltenssyndromen betrachtet können nicht nur verschiedene Verhaltensstrategien in verschiedenen Kontexten und zwischen verschiedenen Individuen erklärt werden, sondern diese erlauben ebenfalls die Integration von Ansätzen um gleichzeitig proximate Mechanismen, ultimate Funktionen, und Ontogenie von Verhalten zu untersuchen. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit sollten in folgenden Studien durch Quantifizierung weiterer ökologischer (bspw. Wettbewerb um Zugang zur Nahrung) und sozialer Einflussfaktoren (bspw. Männchen) ergänzt werden. Insgesamt weicht das Sozialverhalten von Schopfmakaken, wie ich in dieser Arbeit beschreibe, substantiell von dem ab, was normalerweise als typisch für cercopithecine Primaten angesehen wird. Dies unterstreicht letztlich die Wichtigkeit, sowohl externe (Umwelt), als auch interne Komponenten (Sozialsystem) zu betrachten, um die Diversität von Tiergesellschaften zu erklären. / La vie sociale est extrêmement bénéfique pour les individus. Les relations sociales entre individus, compétitives et coopératives, sont considérées comme des investissements à long-terme influençant leur valeur adaptative. L’analyse des coûts (compétition) et bénéfices (coopération) de la vie sociale à ce niveau permets donc de determiner les stratégies comportementales des individus, qui sont très diverses. Pour expliquer cette diversité dans les structures sociales animales, les modèles d’évolution sociale prennent en compte l’influence de facteurs écologiques, génétiques, sociaux, développementaux et l’histoire phylogénétique des espèces. Chez les mammifères sociaux, les femelles, étant philopatriques, forment des liens sociaux forts. Ces liens peuvent être influencés par les relations de dominance et le degré de parenté. La variation dans la force et la diversité des relations sociales a d’importantes implications pour la coopération entre femelles. Cependant, les facteurs déterminant cette variation restent ambigus, surtout en relation avec le type de société dans laquelle les femelles vivent, par exemple despotique ou égalitaire. Les macaques (genre Macaca) partagent la même organisation sociale (groupes multi-males multi-femelles où les femelles sont philopatriques), mais les relations sociales des différentes espèces varient largement. Ces différences sont expliquées par différent facteurs, de l’écologie à la covariation des caractères, et ont généré plusieurs classifications des structures sociales. Un problème majeur est le manque de connaissance de certaines espèces au détriment d’autres qui empêche une compréhension exhaustive de la diversité sociale des macaques. L’objectif principal de ma thèse est donc d’approfondir la connaissance de la diversité sociale des macaques par l’étude détaillée d’une des espèces les moins connues, les macaques à crête de Sulawesi, M. nigra, dans son milieu naturel. Ma 1ère étude consiste à évaluer le style social des femelles. J’examine ensuite de manière approfondie la structure et la fonction des relations sociales par l’étude des interactions conciliatoires (2ème étude) et de l’influence de la dominance et de la parenté sur les interactions sociales (3ème étude). Finalement, je propose une réflexion sur l’interaction des facteurs diverses dans une perspective comparative et une idée de modèle permettant une prise en compte globale de ces facteurs dans l’évolution de la diversité sociale. Dans la première étude, j’évalue un ensemble de comportements sociaux dont la variation est liée au degré de tolérance d’une espèce. Je confirme que les femelles macaque à crête ont un style social tolérant avec des conflits de faible intensité, souvent bidirectionnels et réconciliés. L’asymétrie de dominance est modérée et associée à une mimique faciale positive et également bidirectionnelle. De plus, les femelles ont une grande tolérance des autres à proximité. Ces observations concordent avec ce qui a été observé chez les autres macaques tolérants et contrastent avec les macaques plus despotiques. Dans la deuxième étude, j’examine les facteurs déterminants et la fonction des interactions post-agression. J’analyse les conséquences de l’agression sur l’anxiété des femelles. J’étudie ensuite l’influence des caractéristiques des conflits (intensité, direction ou contexte) et de celles des dyades impliquées sur l’occurrence des interactions post-agression afin de déterminer leur fonction. Les agressions ne semblent pas perçues comme anxiogènes. En conséquence, les interactions post-agression ne semblent pas fonctionner pour réduire l’anxiété perçue des opposants. Je n’ai pu trouver qu’un support partiel à la théorie selon laquelle les femelles utilisent les interactions post-agression pour “raccommoder” leurs relations sociales. L’initiation et la direction des interactions post-agression révèlent plutôt que la réconciliation pourrait fonctionner comme un signal d’intention pacifique et que les agressions secondaires pourraient fonctionner pour réaffirmer le rang hiérarchique des opposants initiaux. Ces observations, très distinctes de ce qui est généralement observé chez les autres macaques et animaux sociaux, sont à mettre en relation avec le style social tolérant de cette espèce. Finalement, la troisième étude a pour objectif de déterminer l’influence des relations de dominance et de la parenté sur les interactions sociales. J’analyse les liens entre la dominance, la parenté, l’âge, les liens sociaux, les coalitions, le niveau de tolérance sociale (réconciliation et proximité autour de ressources alimentaires). Je ne trouve pas de lien entre les différences de rang hiérarchique et le degré de parenté. Je mets en évidence que les femelles appartenant à la même classe d’âge ainsi que les femelles à la fois proches en rang de dominance et apparentées ont les liens sociaux les plus forts. Les coalitions sont formées entre femelles appartenant à des classes d’âge différentes ou proches en dominance, mais pas entre apparentées ou entre femelles avec des liens forts. De plus, le degré de tolérance n’est influencé par aucune des variables analysées. Les effets différents des variables analysées sur plusieurs des plus importants paramètres sociaux censés influencer la valeur adaptative des femelles met en évidence la complexité des relations sociales dans les sociétés tolérantes, qui forment des réseaux sociaux diverses et variés. En combinant des variables comportementales et génétiques, ma thèse constitue l’étude la plus exhaustive du comportement social des femelles d’une espèce de macaque peu connue en milieu naturel. Elle apporte de nouvelles perspectives empiriques essentielles pour l’étude de la variation sociale. En confirmant le style social tolérant des femelles macaque à crête, la première étude étaye la thèse selon laquelle les styles sociaux sont des associations constantes de comportements, analogues aux syndromes comportementaux. Je démontre aussi l’influence limitée de la dominance ou de la parenté sur les relations sociales des femelles. Le degré de parenté ainsi que la force des liens sociaux, déterminants majeurs de la coopération, n’expliquent pas la fréquence des coalitions, ou le degré de tolérance sociale. Ces résultats questionnent l’importance de la force des liens sociaux par rapport à sa diversité. Ils indiquent aussi que les différences entre stratégies sociales sont significatives au niveau évolutif. Les théories actuelles sur l’évolution sociale ne sont pas entièrement satisfaisantes parce qu’une grande part de la variation observée dans les comportements sociaux restent inexpliquée. Je propose de considérer les styles sociaux comme des syndromes comportementaux, ayant évolués différemment pour résoudre le même problème: comment tirer tous les bénéfices de vivre en groupe. Finalement, le cadre théorique des syndromes comportementaux permet de prendre en compte de nombreux facteurs à la fois et de faire le lien entre eux afin d’expliquer globalement la diversité sociale. Mes résultats restent à mettre en relation de manière plus approfondie avec d’autres facteurs sociaux (comme le comportement des males) et écologiques (comme la compétition alimentaire). Néanmoins, le portrait des comportements sociaux des femelles macaque à crête tracé dans cette thèse diffère substantiellement du modèle traditionnel des primates cercopithecines. Cela démontre l’importance d’intégrer au sein d’un seul modèle d’évolution sociale tous les composants (l’environnement, l’organisme et le système social) pour mieux comprendre la diversité des sociétés animales.

The current study examined stereotype threat or lift (STL) in terms of various elements of social identity theory. STL occurs when a negative stereotype (or positive stereotype) about a group leads to a decrease (or increase) in performance on a task that the group identifies with. The primary focus was the relationship between STL and identifiability, whereby identifiability refers to whether one views one‟s self as an individual or as an anonymous part of a social group. The study examined STL in relation to humanities and science students‟ ability to recognise patterns using two short forms of the Raven‟s Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM) which was developed. The students completed matrices under two conditions; anonymity and visibility to an audience (in-group, out-group and experimenter). When visible, participants performed significantly better than when anonymous, regardless of the STL condition. When examining in-group identification, participants with high in-group identification experienced traditional STL effects while participants with low in-group identification experienced a reversal in effects. / Thesis (M.Soc.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2009.