Thesis (MA (Political Science))--Stellenbosch University, 2009. / In recent years it has become increasingly evident that the idea of the state as a universal (Western) type of governance structure, i.e. a set of bureaucratic institutions headed by a central government with the capacity and interest to govern all of its territory, is incongruent with realities on the ground, particularly within the African continent. The 1990s has been a critical period in the evolution of African statehood, during which old strategies of state control have broken down. While this has given rise to a debate on the ‘failure’ of African statehood, it has also led to attempts to revise and expand theories and concepts of statehood and set off a search for more indigenous and empirically viable alternatives to the state as it was devised by the European colonizers. This thesis aims at contributing to the debate on the challenges and potentials of contemporary African statehood by investigating the case of de facto statehood in Somaliland emerging on the backdrop of state failure in Somalia. The collapse of the de jure state of the Republic of Somalia in 1991 provided an opportunity for Somaliland to fundamentally redefine the pillars of statehood and governance. This entailed the combining of modern institution building with traditional practices of governance, to in this way bolster the capacity and legitimacy of the new de facto state in the north of what is formally recognized as Somalia. Drawing on the analytical framework of ‘mediated state’ provided by Ken Menkhaus, this thesis explores Somaliland’s self-reliant path to state formation as well as the governance structures which underpin its contemporary statehood. Particular attention is given to the role of traditional authorities as driving forces behind state formation and as a means of complementing the under-capacitated state institutions. The study thus relates to the debate on the resurgence of traditional leadership in Africa. The resurgence of traditional leadership within governance is a tendency which is part of a broader development of the reconfiguration of the state in Africa since the early 1990s – a tendency which introduces new possibilities, as well as new risks, in terms of reconstituting new viable governance structures. The study concludes that Somaliland’s approach to state formation demonstrates an impressive indigenous alternative to externally driven top-down attempts to revive centralized statehood, and that the case also challenges the perception that the breakdown of old strategies of state control necessarily leads to generalized anarchy. The study, however, also points out some risks involved in the exercise of the state and the traditional authorities ‘converting’ different forms of power between different realms of governance, and concludes that collaboration between the state and traditional authorities does not per se counteract undemocratic governance practices. On this basis the study suggests that the new ambiguous roles of traditional authorities within governance in Africa merit more academic attention.

Thesis (PhD) - Stellenbosch University, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The Albertine Rift is characterized by a heterogeneous landscape which may, at least in part, drive the exceptional biodiversity found across all taxonomic levels. Notwithstanding the biodiversity and beauty of the region, large areas are poorly understood because of political instability with the inaccessibility of most of the region as a contributing factor. The majority of studies in the Albertine Rift have focussed on charismatic mega fauna, with other taxa receiving less attention. One of the taxonomically and numerically more abundant small mammal genera is the genus Praomys, an African endemic with a wide distribution range spanning most of west, central and east Africa. Four species are typically recognized from the Albertine Rift namely P. degraaffi, P. jacksoni, P. misonnei and P. verschureni. In this study I used a combination of DNA sequence data (mitochondrial control region, mitochondrial cytochrome b and 7th intron of the nuclear ß-fibrinogen gene) as well as morphometric data (traditional and geometric) to investigate the systematics of the Praomys taxa occurring in the Albertine Rift. To allow meaningful DNA assessments and in an attempt to identify potential drivers of diversifications, other Praomys species were also included from public sequence data bases for comparisons. The main focus was on P. jacksoni (the numerically most abundant taxon; also, up to 2005, all Praomys in the Albertine Rift were mostly collected as “jacksoni”) and P. degraaffi (an Albertine Rift endemic). A surprising finding was the presence of P. mutoni; this represents a range extension for this species into the Albertine Rift. Distinct evolutionary lineages were found in both P. jacksoni (confirmed by sequence data as well as morphometrics) as well as P. degraaffi (based only on sequence data; insufficient samples precluded a full morphometric investigation). These lineages (in both P. jacksoni as well as P. degraaffi) appear to be separated along a north – south gradient; however, further investigations should confirm this. To further investigate the genetic patterns at local scales across the Albertine Rift, as well as introgression between species as revealed by sequence data, a species-specific microsatellite library was developed for P. jacksoni. Twelve polymorphic markers were identified of which nine also amplified in P. degraaffi. Introgression was confirmed between the two focal species with almost 20% of the individuals analysed being jacksoni-degraaffi hybrids. This is perhaps not so surprising given that there is considerable overlap in their ranges (between ~ 1500 m a.s.l. to 2450 m a.s.l.) as well as the relative ages of the species (the divergence time between these two species were estimated at 3.8 Mya). The presence of distinct lineages within each of these species was confirmed by microsatellite analyses (these lineages diverged approcimately at same time at ca. 3.4 Mya). As suggested by sequence and morphometric data, these lineages had a largely north – south distribution but with considerable overlap in the central Albertine Rift in the vicinity of Lake Kivu. The phylogeographic patterns obtained for both focal species were not consistent with the physical barriers such as the rivers, lakes or mountains, nor were they exclusively associated with Pleistocene phenomena such as the change of the course of the rivers or uplift; rather, the lineages predate the Pleistocene and fall firmly in the Pliocene (>3 Mya). Biogeographically, the north - south location of lineages with a centrally - located contact zone could be a result of parapatric speciation due to habitat fragmentation or past climate change, followed by secondary contact. Barcoding using genetic information provides a useful tool to identify unknown taxa, cryptic diversity or where different life stages are difficult to identify. From an invasion biology perspective, it allows for the rapid identification of problem taxa against a known data base. By adopting such a barcoding approach (senso lato), the presence of three invasive rodents was confirmed in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC); these are Rattus rattus (black rat), R. norvegicus (Norway rat) and Mus musculus domesticus (house mouse). A comparison with global data available for these species revealed two possible introduction pathways namely via the shipping port at Kinshasa/Matadi (with strong links to Europe) and via the slave trade routes in the east (strong links to the Arab world and the east). Of these three taxa, only R. rattus is currently documented from the DRC although the others have received mention in the gray literature. These findings draw attention to the lack of any official policy regarding biosecurity in the DRC, and argue for the development of strict control measures to prevent further introductions. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Albertine Rift word gekenmerk deur 'n heterogene landskap wat kan, ten minste gedeeltelik, die uitsonderlike biodiversiteit wat oor al die taksonomiese vlakke gevind word teweeg bring. Nieteenstaande die biodiversiteit en die skoonheid van die streek, is groot gebiede onbekend as gevolg van politieke onstabiliteit met die ontoeganklikheid van meeste van die streek as 'n bydraende faktor. Die meerderheid van studies in die Albertine Rift het gefokus op die charismatiese mega fauna, met ander taxa wat minder aandag ontvang. Een van die taksonomies en numeries meer volop klein soogdier genera is die genus Praomys, 'n Afrika endemiese groep met 'n wye verspreiding wat strek oor die grootste deel van van wes-, sentraal en oos-Afrika. Vier spesies word tipies erken van die Albertine Rift naamlik P. degraaffi, P. jacksoni, P. misonnei en P. verschureni. In hierdie studie het ek 'n kombinasie van DNA volgorde data (mitochondriale beheer streek, mitochondriale sitochroom b en 7de intron van die kern ß-fibrinogeen geen) sowel as morfometriese data (tradisioneel en meetkundig) gebruik om die sistematiek van die Praomys taxa te ondersoek. Om betekenisvolle DNA aanslae toe te laat en in 'n poging om potensiële aandrywers van diversiteit te identifiseer, is ander Praomys spesies van openbare volgorde data basisse vir vergelykings ingesluit. Die hooffokus is op P. jacksoni (die numeries volopste takson, ook, tot en met 2005 is alle Praomys in die Albertine Rift meestal as "jacksoni" versamel) en P. degraaffi ('n Albertine Rift endemiese spesie). 'n Verrassende bevinding was die teenwoordigheid van P. mutoni, dit verteenwoordig' n verspreidingsuitbreiding vir hierdie spesie in die Albertine Rift. Bepaalde evolusionêre ontwikkelingslyne was in beide P. jacksoni (bevestig deur die volgorde data sowel as morfometrie) sowel as P. degraaffi (wat slegs gebaseer is op die volgorde data, onvoldoende monsters verhinder 'n volledige morfometriese ondersoek). Hierdie lyne (in beide P. jacksoni sowel as P. degraaffi) word geskei langs 'n noord - suid gradiënt, maar verdere ondersoeke moet dit bevestig. Om die genetiese patrone op plaaslike skaal oor die Albertina Rift verder te ondersoek, sowel as introgressie tussen spesies soos geopenbaar deur die volgorde data, is 'n spesie-spesifieke mikrosatelliet biblioteek ontwikkel vir P. jacksoni. Twaalf polimorfiese merkers is geïdentifiseer waarvan nege ook amplifiseer in P. degraaffi. Introgressie is bevestig tussen die twee brandpunt spesies met byna 20% van die individue wat ontleed is as jacksoni-degraaffi basters. Dit is miskien nie so verbasend gegee dat daar aansienlike oorvleueling is in hul gebiede (tussen ~ 1500 m bo seespieel tot 2450 m bo seespieel), sowel as die relatiewe ouderdomme van die spesies (die divergensie tussen hierdie twee spesies is geskat op 3,8 Mya). Die teenwoordigheid van verskillende lyne in elk van hierdie spesies is bevestig deur mikrosatelliet ontleding (hierdie lyne het gedivergeer ongeveer 3,4 Mya). Soos voorgestel deur die DNA volgorde en morfometriese data, het hierdie lyne 'n grootliks noorde – suid verspreiding, maar met 'n aansienlike oorvleueling in die sentrale Albertine Rift in die omgewing van die Kivumeer. Die filogeografiese patrone wat vir beide die brandpunt spesies gevind is nie in ooreenstemming met die fisiese struikelblokke soos die riviere, mere of berge nie, en hou ook nie uitsluitlik verband met die Pleistoseen verskynsels soos die verandering van die loop van die riviere nie; die afstammelinge is eerder veel ouer as die Pleistoseen en val binne die Plioseen (> 3 Mya). Biogeografies, die noorde – suid plasing van die lyne met 'n sentraal geleë kontak sone kan die gevolg wees van parapatriese spesiasie te danke aan habitatfragmentasie as gevolg van verandering in die klimaat, gevolg deur 'n sekondêre kontak. Strepieskodering met behulp van genetiese inligting verskaf 'n nuttige instrument om onbekend taxa, kriptiese diversiteit of waar verskillende lewensfases moeilik is om te identifiseer, te identifiseer. Vanuit 'n indringerbiologie perspektief, maak hierdie benadering dit moontlik om vinnige identifikasies van die probleem taksa teen' n bekende data basis te bekom. Deur gebruik te maak van so 'n strepieskoderingsbenadering (senso lato), is die teenwoordigheid van drie indringende knaagdiere bevestig in die Demokratiese Republiek van die Kongo (DRK), naamlik Rattus rattus (swart rot), R. norvegicus (Noorweë rot) en Mus musculus domesticus (huis muis). 'n Vergelyking met die globale data wat beskikbaar is vir hierdie spesies het aan die lig gebring dat twee moontlike betree-roetes bestaan, naamlik via die skeepshawe by Kinshasa / Matadi (met sterk skakels na Europa), en via die slawehandel roetes in die ooste (sterk skakels na die Arabiese wêreld en die ooste) . Van hierdie drie taxa, is tans slegs R. rattus van die Demokratiese Republiek van die Kongo gedokumenteer, hoewel die ander melding ontvang in die grys literatuur. Hierdie bevindinge vestig die aandag op die gebrek aan enige amptelike beleid ten opsigte van biosekuriteit in die Demokratiese Republiek van die Kongo, en argumenteer vir die ontwikkeling van streng beheermaatreëls om verdere indringerspesies te voorkom.

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: In traditional medicine, there is a long-standing culture of combining herbal drugs to increase the therapeutic efficacy. The improved medical action is thought to be due to synergistic interactions between different plant bioactive components. The aim of this study was to test the pharmacological interactions in a medicinal plant combination which consisted of Agathosma crenulata, Dodonaea viscosa and Eucalyptus globulus. The rationale for the analysis of this particular mixture is that it had noteworthy antibacterial activity and exhibited the highest activity out of seven medicinal plant mixtures previously investigated. Using chromatographic analysis, the phytochemistry of the plants was also assessed. The chloroform: methanol (1:1; v/v) extracts or hydo-distilled essential oils (A. crenulata and E. globulus) were screened individually and in combinations (double and triple plant combination) for activity against five respiratory pathogens using a microdilution assay. The antimicrobial interactions in combinations were assessed with the fractional inhibitory concentration (FIC) and the isobolograms. The organic extracts generally showed the highest antimicrobial activity with E. globulus having the highest activity with MIC values below 1 mg ml-1 representing noteworthy activity. The overall activity of the aqueous extracts was poor. The essential oil activity of E. globulus was mostly noteworthy (0.5 to 2 mg ml-1) while A. crenulata essential oil displayed moderate activity (1 to 4 mg ml-1). The ΣFIC values for double combinations (1:1) of A. crenulata with D. viscosa, A. crenulata with E. globulus and D. viscosa with E. globulus were calculated from the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) data and the interactions were classified as synergistic, additive, indifferent and antagonistic. The highest synergistic interactions observed were for a 1:1 combination of A. crenulata with E. globulus against K. pneumoniae, S. aureus and B. subtilis with ΣFIC values of 0.07. There was only one incident of antagonism noted in the study for D. viscosa with E. globulus (1:1) against C. neoformans with ΣFIC value of 4.25. The double combinations against selective pathogens (K. pneumoniae, S. aureus and E. coli) were further analysed for interactions using isobolograms. Mostly, the antimicrobial interactions as presented by the isobolograms were congruent with FIC results which further validated the occurrence of relevant antimicrobial interactions in those combinations. The ΣFIC values for triple combinations (1:1:1) revealed mostly synergistic interactions. When the triple combinations were analysed further against certain pathogens based on the predictions of the Design of Experiments software program (MODDE 9.1®), the MIC values remained the same despite the different combinations that were tested Thin layer chromatography (TLC) was used for a quick chemical fingerprinting of the plant extracts. This was followed by a bio-autographic assay. The chemical profiles of the organic extracts and essential oils from two of the study aromatic plants (A. crenulata and E. globulus) were further analysed with liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC-MS) and gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) respectively. For combined plant extracts, a multivariate data analysis using principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical clustering analysis (HCA) was used to determine the relationship of the chemical make-up of combinations with that of individual plant extracts. According to the TLC analysis, E. globulus extracts had more compounds than the other two plants in the study. For the bio-autographic assay, E. globulus and combinations that included this plant showed greater inhibition zones than A. crenulata and D. viscosa. For the LC-MS analysis, PCA and HCA showed a close relationship between A. crenulata with D. viscosa, D. viscosa with E. globulus and the triple combination. Twenty one components were identified in the essential oil of A. crenulata representing 88.83% of the total oil composition. The oil was dominated by oxygen-containing monoterpenes (46.25%). In the essential oil of E. globulus, twenty six compounds were identified making up to 95.62% of the oil composition. Oxygen-containing monoterpenes (32.98%) also dominated the E. globulus essential oil. There was no great variation in essential oil metabolites of the individual plants and their combination as shown by both PCA and HCA. The enhanced in vitro antimicrobial activity and pharmacological interactions (synergy and additivity) in some of the combinations (double and triple) that were tested in this study adds scientific support to the use of medicinal plant combinations in Western Cape traditional medicine. The metabolic profiles of plants in combination might be unique due to interaction of the different plant bioactive molecules and thus result into defined antimicrobial activity. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: In tradisionele geneeskunde is dit ’n lank bestaande kultuur om kruiemiddels te kombineer om die terapeutiese werking daarvan te verhoog. Dié verbeterde mediese werking word toegeskryf aan die oënskynlik sinergistiese interaksies tussen verskillende bioaktiewe plantkomponente. Die doel van hierdie studie was om die farmakologiese interaksies in medisinale plantkombinasies van Agathosma crenulata, Dodonaea viscosa en Eucalyptus globulus te bestudeer. Daar is op die ontleding van hierdie spesifieke mengsel besluit omdat dit oor beduidende antibakteriese waarde beskik en omdat dit uit sewe medisinale plantmengsels wat voorheen bestudeer is, as die doeltreffendste een aangewys is. Die fitochemie van die plante is ook met behulp van chromatografiese ontleding beoordeel. Deur middel van ’n mikroverdunningstoets is die chloroform:metanol- (1:1; v/v-)ekstrakte of hidrogedistilleerde vlugtige olies (A. crenulata en E. globulus) individueel sowel as in kombinasie (dubbele en drievoudige plantkombinasies) nagegaan vir hul werking met betrekking tot vyf respiratoriese patogene. Die gekombineerde antimikrobiese interaksies is met behulp van fraksioneel stremmende konsentrasie (FIC) en isobologramme ondersoek. Die organiese ekstrakte het oor die algemeen die meeste antimikrobiese aktiwiteit by E. globulus getoon, met MIC-waardes onder 1 mg ml-1 wat as noemenswaardige aktiwiteit beskou is. Die algehele aktiwiteit van die waterekstrakte was swak. Die vlugtige-olieaktiwiteit van E. globulus was merendeels noemenswaardig (0,5 tot 2 mg ml-1), terwyl die vlugtige olie van A. crenulata matige aktiwiteit getoon het (1 tot 4 mg ml-1). Die ΣFIC-waardes vir dubbelkombinasies (1:1) van A. crenulata en D. viscosa, A. crenulata en E. globulus, en D. viscosa en E. globulus is uit die minimum stremmende konsentrasie (MIC) bereken en die interaksies is as sinergisties, additief, neutraal en antagonisties geklassifiseer. Die sterkste sinergistiese interaksies is by ’n 1:1-kombinasie van A. crenulata en E. globulus met betrekking tot K. pneumoniae, S. aureus en B. subtilis opgemerk, met ΣFIC-waardes van 0,07. Die studie het slegs een geval van antagonisme opgelewer, naamlik by D. viscosa en E. globulus (1:1) met betrekking tot C. neoformans, wat ’n ΣFIC-waarde van 4,25 geregistreer het. Die werking van die dubbelkombinasies met betrekking tot gekose patogene (K. pneumoniae, S. aureus en E. coli) is voorts met behulp van isobologramme vir interaksies nagegaan. Die antimikrobiese interaksies wat uit die isobologramme geblyk het, was meestal in pas met FIC-resultate, wat die bestaan van tersaaklike antimikrobiese interaksies in daardie kombinasies verder bevestig het. Die ΣFIC-waardes vir die drievoudige kombinasies (1:1:1) het meestal sinergistiese interaksies aan die lig gebring. Toe die drievoudige kombinasies verder op grond van die voorspellings van die sagteware Design of Experiments (MODDE 9.1®) met betrekking tot sekere patogene ontleed is, het die MIC-waardes onveranderd gebly, ondanks verskillende toetskombinasies. Dunlaagchromatografie (TLC) is vir ’n vinnige chemiese ontleding van die plantekstrakte gebruik en is gevolg deur ’n bio-outografiese toets. Die chemiese profiele van die organiese ekstrakte en vlugtige olies van twee van die aromatiese plante in die studie (A. crenulata en E. globulus) is verder met vloeistofchromatografie-massaspektrometrie (LC-MS) en gaschromatografie-massaspektrometrie (GC-MS) onderskeidelik ontleed. Vir gekombineerde plantekstrakte is veelveranderlike-ontleding in die vorm van hoofkomponentontleding (PCA) en hiërargiese groepsontleding (HCA) gebruik om die verhouding van die chemiese samestelling van kombinasies in vergelyking met dié van individuele plantekstrakte te bepaal. Volgens die TLC-ontleding beskik E. globulus-ekstrakte oor meer verbindings as die ander twee plante in die studie. Vir die bio-outografiese toets het E. globulus en kombinasies daarmee groter stremmingsones as A. crenulata en D. viscosa getoon. In die LC-MS-ontleding het PCA en HCA op ’n hegte verhouding tussen A. crenulata en D. viscosa, D. viscosa en E. globulus, en die drievoudige kombinasie daarvan gedui. Een-en-twintig komponente is in die vlugtige olie van A. crenulata gevind, wat 88,83% van die algehele oliesamestelling uitmaak. Die olie is deur suurstofhoudende monoterpene (46,25%) oorheers. Die vlugtige olie van E. globulus het 26 verbindings opgelewer, wat 95,62% van die oliesamestelling uitmaak. Suurstofhoudende monoterpene (32,98%) het ook die vlugtige olie van E. globulus oorheers. Nóg PCA nóg HCA het op enige beduidende variasie in die metaboliete van die vlugtige olies van die individuele plante en hul kombinasies gedui. Die verhoogde in vitro- antimikrobiese aktiwiteit en farmakologiese interaksies (sinergie en additiwiteit) in van die kombinasies (dubbel én drievoudig) wat in hierdie studie getoets is, bied wetenskaplike stawing vir die gebruik van medisinale plantkombinasies in Wes-Kaapse tradisionele geneeskunde. Die metaboliese profiele van plantkombinasies kan verander weens die interaksie van die verskillende bioaktiewe plantmolekules, en kan baie bepaalde antimikrobiese aktiwiteit tot gevolg hê.

No description available.

The aim of this study is to identify the best practices in traditional and electronic banking operations strategy in Jordan as a case study of developing economies over the period 1999 to 2008. During this period numerous changes faced banks in Jordan: new banking law was launched, the banks were directed towards complying with the Basel Accord II, and the banks adopted more e-banking channels. Only the practices of all local banks were investigated due to their superior performance. A number of questionnaires were used to collect the data from different individuals in these banks. Further, annual reports were analysed and websites were reviewed. Two data-analysis approaches were used to identify the key strategies of traditional and electronic banking in Jordan: competitive position analysis and cluster analysis. Analysis revealed eight best practices of traditional banking and four best practices of electronic banking were adopted. Best practices are presented as prediction models. These models combine actions with capabilities and performance. The traditional banking predication models are: branches urban accessibility, branches sites accessibility (percentage of sites covered), branches sites accessibility (number of branches sites covered), account transaction time, new credit product flexibility, account customer waiting time, account transaction cost, loan approval costs, and branches layout quality. The e-banking prediction models are: Internet banking transaction time, telephone banking volume flexibility, ATM suburban accessibility, and ATM sites accessibility. This research revealed that; financial performance achieved by e-banking strategy patterns is significantly lower than traditional banking. Also customers satisfaction, retention, and deposit market of e-banking are significantly lower than traditional banking, which indicates that the best operational practices in Jordan are still more traditional oriented despite the significant direction of banks in Jordan toward adopting e-banking channel.

This study investigated the practices, perceptions, and time expenditures of post-secondary instructors in American institutions as they prepared for, taught, and reflected on the tasks involved in teaching a one-semester course. The participants either taught in a traditional face-to-face setting or in an all-online context. This study compares and contrasts the experiences of the participants. Although research in the business field includes models for improving productivity, the world of education rarely looks at these subjects, especially in the context of what leads to a successful course. The few studies there have been on similar topics in education have generally failed to provide consensus on amount of time the delivery of an online course requires and on the factors that contribute to that time difference. A clear trend in higher education is the growing use of instructional technology tools that can help instructors meet the needs of students and facilitate the teaching process. However, these changes also bring about challenges for faculty, challenges that must be examined, understood, and addressed in order to ensure the best possible learning environment for everyone involved. This study was designed to examine faculty teaching practices and gain insight into the experiences of faculty teaching classroom-based courses and faculty teaching online or Web-based courses. A qualitative, case study approach was used to conduct an in-depth investigation that focused on the tools and methods that faculty members employ to help them optimize the time they devote to course activities. The study also revealed a set of good practices used by these faculty members. Data included semi-structured interviews, faculty profile questionnaires, and teaching journals. Findings revealed that faculty teaching online recorded an average of one hour per week more on their courses than did faculty teaching in the classroom. There was minimal difference in time commitment between online and classroom-based faculty participants when considering factors such as gender, type of higher education institution, and experience level. Overall, perceptions of faculty workload averaged three hours more than the actual time recorded during the journaling phase of the study, with all of the face-to-face instructors perceiving that they would work more hours than they actually logged on their journals. Only half of the online instructors perceived that they would work more hours than they actually logged. Significant issues brought to light for faculty in both delivery formats included (1) lack of adequate or sufficient preparation for teaching, (2) limited availability of faculty training, and (3) lack of sufficient time to teach. The study also revealed the variation of instructional strategies used for comparison, and a set of common good practices that apply to both online and face-to-face courses. / text

This project examines midwifery in the precolonial setting, the nature of Christian missionary activities in Southeastern Nigeria, the colonial process of erecting the maternity, and the collaborations between traditional and Western midwives. The colonial history of Nigeria can be traced to 1885 when British claims to a West African sphere of influence received international recognition. However it was not until 1900, following the British government's acquisition of the Royal Niger Company's territories, that Nigeria was officially considered a British colony. Nonetheless, the groundwork of colonial rule in Southeastern Nigeria predated these eras and is attributed to the establishment of the London-based Church Missionary Society (CMS) at Onitsha in 1857, followed by the Roman Catholic Missions (RCM) in 1885. The rivalry that ensued between them led to the development of a medical mission and the launching of the Western maternity in Southeastern Nigeria, undermining traditional childbirth practices, and providing new forms of training and facilities for a new class of midwives. / text

<p>The aim of this paper is to theoretically establish a framework for the basics of international trade between countries creating competitiveness. Since the environment in which trade takes place is changeable so is the concept of competitiveness. It is therefore argued in the paper that in order to understand the underlying factors of competitiveness one have to understand the environment in which trade takes place in. Today the concept of competitiveness will therefore be better understood by employing an industrial perspective. This approach can answer questions, which national aggregate estimates cannot. The question asked in the paper is; which industries in Europe, based on the assumptions of international trade theories is competitive? The European industries that came out as competitive were the one using high-skilled labor and produced or used ICT intensively in their production. The question also provided some answers to the always up-do-day wonder namely, in which direction European competitiveness is heading.</p>

<p>Livestock keeping has been the essential source of livelihood in Babati District for many hundreds of years. The traditional ecological knowledge about this semi-arid environment has influenced the general view on livestock management. This essay discusses the measures that are, or could be taken in Babati District to prevent overstocking and overgrazing in the woodlands. With the continuing population density increase also the livestock population grows. More houses and roads are built and the grazing lands diminish. To avoid overgrazing forest management programmes restrict grazing in forests. This additionally decreases availability of grazing land. My conclusion is that minimizing number of livestock is necessary to not exceed carrying capacity of pasture during drought. Hence this is not free from problems since it is traditionally rooted to have a large number of livestock as a buffer of energy and wealth. One solution for both how to prevent overstocking and how to survive with small number of livestock is to practise zero-grazing. Zero-grazing is to keep a small number of healthy big cattle e.g. exotic cows or crossbreeds in stables or tied up. However, when tying cattle on the spot the fact that cattle have four legs is disregarded.</p>

Land is a critical element in the formation of, maintenance and continuance of Native identity to tribes in North America. Since time immemorial, Native people have occupied these landscapes in a manner than can perhaps be best described as "persistent." Native views of the land can differ significantly from those of a Western, or Anglo-American tradition. And when managers of these lands come from a Western tradition, dissimilar views on how these lands should be used can become very problematic for Native people. This research examines how five tribes (Pueblo of Acoma, the Hopi Tribe, Pueblo of Laguna, Navajo Nation and Pueblo of Zuni) view their identity and future cultural continuity as their ancestral homelands are inundated by competing uranium mining interests that threaten to destroy the Mount Taylor landscape of northern New Mexico.