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A better understanding of the exchange processes taking place over the oceans is of great importance since the oceans cover about 70 % of the Earth’s surface. With better knowledge the turbulent fluxes can be more accurate parameterized, which is essential in order to improve the weather- and climate models. In this study, the non-dimensional gradient functions for water vapor (Φq) and carbon dioxide (Φc) in the marine boundary layer have principally been studied. The quality of the instrumentation used in the study has also been evaluated. The study is mainly based on tower measurements of turbulent fluxes and vertical profiles of water vapor and carbon dioxide, taken from the Östergarnsholm Island located in the Baltic Sea. The measurements have been shown to represent open-sea conditions for most situations when the winds are coming from the east-south sector, even though the measurements are obtained over land. It was found that the best fitting non-dimensional gradient functions for water vapor during unstable conditions were Φq = 2(1–18z/L)–1/2 and Φq = 1.2(1–14z/L) –1/2 at the 10 and 26 m level on the tower, respectively. No unique relationship could be established for Φq during stable conditions. Φq showed a dependence with wind direction and could for winds coming from the sector 80°– 160° be described with the relationship Φq = 1.2 + 10.7z/L during stable conditions. For the wind sector 50°– 80° the relationship for Φq was found to be Φq = 1.8 + 7.1z/L during stable conditions. A high degree of scatter was apparent in the calculated values of Φc during both stable and unstable conditions and did not seem to show any Monin-Obukhov similarity behaviour. The results indicate that there might be measurement problems with the instruments measuring the turbulent fluxes of carbon dioxide, but further studies are needed in order to draw a firm conclusion about the quality of the instruments. The profile measurements of water vapor seem to work fine, but more studies of carbon dioxide are needed before a statement can be made regarding the quality of the profile measurements of carbon dioxide. / Skiktet närmast marken kallas det atmosfäriska gränsskiktet och karaktäriseras av turbulens, dvs. oregelbundna virvelrörelser av olika storlekar som uppstår av vindens friktion mot jordytan (land eller hav) eller av luftens uppvärmning av jordytan. Genom turbulens kan utbyte av värme, vattenånga, momentum, koldioxid och andra gaser ske mellan jordytan och atmosfären. Turbulenta utbytesprocesser i det atmosfäriska gränsskiktet är viktiga att studera för att kunna beräkna ett turbulent flöde från en yta i väder- och klimatmodeller. Genom en ökad förståelse av flödena kan dessa bli mer noggrant parametriserade (dvs. en fysikalisk process som sker på en mindre skala eller är för komplex för att kunna beskrivas i en modell förenklas genom att beskriva processen med hjälp av ett antal kända parametrar som kan upplösas i modellen), vilket är grundläggande för att kunna förbättra modellerna. Flödena beräknas med hjälp av de s.k. dimensionslösa gradientfunktionerna, vilka relaterar flödet av en viss turbulent kvantitet, t.ex. värme, momentum, vattenånga, koldioxid etc., till dess vertikala gradient. Enligt Monin-Obukhovs similaritetsteori ska funktionerna vara universella och endast bero på den atmosfäriska stabiliteten. I denna studie har de dimensionslösa gradientfunktionerna för vattenånga (Φq) och koldioxid (Φc) i det marina gränsskiktet huvudsakligen analyserats. Kvaliteten på de instrument som har använts i studien har också utvärderats. I studien har främst data av turbulenta flöden och vertikala profiler av vattenånga och koldioxid använts som erhållits från ett torn på ön Östergarnsholm i Östersjön. Även om mätningarna sker över land har det visat sig att de för de flesta situationer när vinden blåser från sektorn ost-syd representerar likvärdiga förhållanden som gäller över öppet hav. Resultaten visade på att uttrycken Φq = 2(1–18z/L)–1/2 respektive Φq = 1.2(1–14z/L)–1/2 bäst beskriver de dimensionslösa gradientfunktionerna för vattenånga under instabila förhållanden på mäthöjderna 10 respektive 26 m. Något unikt uttryck för Φq under stabila förhållanden kunde inte fastställas. Φq visade ett beroende av vindriktning och kunde under stabila förhållanden beskrivas med uttrycket Φq = 1.2 + 10.7z/L för vindsektorn 80°– 160°. För vindar i sektorn 50°– 80° kunde Φq beskrivas enligt Φq = 1.8 + 7.1z/L under stabila förhållanden. En stor spridning syntes i de beräknade värdena av Φc under både stabila och instabila förhållanden och verkade inte följa Monin-Obukhov’s similaritetsteori. Resultatet tyder på att det kan vara mätproblem med de instrument som mäter de turbulenta flödena av koldioxid, men fler studier behövs för att kunna dra en definitiv slutsats om instrumentens kvalitet. Profilmätningarna av vattenånga verkar fungera bra, men fler studier om koldioxid måste utföras innan ett uttalande angående kvaliteten på profilmätningarna av koldioxid kan göras.

Wind energy is rapidly growing around the world as non-renewable energy sources are being phased out. To maximize the energy production, it is crucial to construct new wind turbines at locations where the average wind speed is high. An accurate wind assessment of a new potential site is thus essential in the development of new wind farms. Linearized codes (codes based on simplified models) such as Orfeus and WAsP have seen frequent use in the wind industry as a tool for wind resource assessment since they offer reasonable accuracy at a relatively low computational cost. A major issue with the linearized codes on the market is their disregard of stratification, which will cause the codes to omit certain flow characteristics, such as internal gravity waves. Therefore, a new linearized code has been developed, where the modelling of stratification has been included. The developed code has been validated by comparing the simulation results to experimental data found in the literature, where an overall agreement could be found. In addition, test cases for stratified flows over sinusoidal terrain were simulated, showcasing the importance of including stratification as a parameter in the modelling. The developed code in this project may be used for more accurate wind assessment in the future. / Vindenergi växer snabbt världen över då icke-förnybara energikällor håller på att fasas ut. FÖr att maximera energiproduktionen är det viktigt att konstruera vindturbiner där den genomsnittliga vindhastigheten är hög. En noggrann vindbedömning av nya potentiella lägen är därför vitalt i konstruktionen av nya vindparker. Linjäriserade koder (koder baserade på förenklade modeller) som Orefeus and Wasp används ofta i vindindustrin som ett verktyg för vindbedömning, då de erbjuder en hög noggrannhet till en låg beräkningskostad. Ett stort problem med de linjäriserade koderna på marknaden är exkluderingen av stratifikation, vilket får koderna att utelämna vissa flödesegenskaper, som till exempel interna gravitationsvågor. En ny linjäriserad kod har därför utvecklats där modelleringen av stratifikation har inkluderats. Den utvecklade koden har validerats genom att jämföra simuleringarna med experimentella data i litteraturen, där en god överenstämmelse kunda påvisas. Dessutom har testfall av stratifierade flöden över sinusformad terräng genomförts, vilket påvisade betydelsen av att inkludera stratifikation som en parameter i modelleringen. Den utvecklade koden i detta projekt kan användas för en mer representativ vindbedömning i framtiden.

Le processus d’évapotranspiration (ETR) reste actuellement difficile à évaluer. L’objectif poursuivi par cette recherche est de proposer une méthode suffisamment robuste pour pouvoir être appliquée à l’échelle pluriannuelle tout en permettant un suivi à pas de temps fin au cours de la journée. En s’appuyant sur l’état de l’art, l’étude s’intéresse successivement au cas idéalisé des surfaces homogènes puis à celui des surfaces hétérogènes. Depuis quelques années, l’IRM a entrepris d’automatiser son réseau de stations synoptiques. Un sous-ensemble de stations a été choisi afin d’être doté d’un équipement plus complet comprenant un mât météorologique destiné à effectuer des mesures de la température et de la vitesse du vent à plusieurs niveaux. Ces nouvelles données sont exploitées dans la méthode préconisée. Celle-ci combine la théorie de Monin-Obukhov et l’évaluation du bilan énergétique de surface pour calculer les flux turbulents de chaleur sensible et de chaleur latente ainsi que le flux d’ETR. La télédétection offre quant à elle la possibilité d’observer de vastes territoires. Un modèle diagnostique est proposé pour estimer les flux turbulents de surface et l’ETR sur l’ensemble de la Belgique. Il s’agit d’une variante simplifiée du schéma « Isba » de transfert sol-végétation-atmosphère. Des flux radiatifs déduits d’images du satellite Meteosat sont exploités en entrée. La résolution spatiale est celle du capteur infra-rouge utilisé jusque Meteosat-7 (5*9 km). L’application est réalisée sur la période 1994-2003 avec un pas de temps horaire ce qui représente une première dans le domaine. Des comparaisons sont effectuées avec les résultats obtenus aux stations automatiques de l’IRM et avec des données récentes des stations belges du réseau Fluxnet. Les résultats sont très satisfaisants. Le travail s’achève sur des perspectives de développements futurs, la recherche en la matière étant encore en pleine évolution.

L'objectif de ce travail est de modéliser les sources et la propagation atmosphérique du bruit généré par les éoliennes afin de mieux comprendre les caractéristiques de ce bruit à grande distance et d'aider les fabricants d'éoliennes et les développeurs de parc à respecter la réglementation. En couplant des modèles physiques de source aéroacoustique et de propagation, nous sommes capables de prédire les spectres de bruit, ainsi que la directivité et les modulations d'amplitude associées, pour différentes conditions atmosphériques. Le bruit aérodynamique large bande, à savoir le bruit d'impact de turbulence,le bruit de bord de fuite et le bruit de décrochage, est généralement dominant pour les éoliennes modernes. Le modèle analytique d'Amiet est choisi pour prédire le bruit d'impact de turbulence et le bruit de bord de fuite, en considérant plusieurs améliorations par rapport à la théorie initial : 1, une correction empirique pour l'épaisseur du bord d'attaque est introduite dans le calcul du bruit d'impact de turbulence ; 2, un modèle spectral des fluctuations de pression pariétale proposé récemment pour un écoulement avec gradient de pression défavorable est utilisé dans le calcul du bruit de bord de fuite. Ces modèles sont validés par comparaison avec des mesures de la littérature en soufflerie avec des profils fixes.Le modèle d'Amiet est ensuite appliqué à une éolienne complète pour prédire le bruit émis en champ proche. L'effet de la rotation des pales et l'effet Doppler sont pris en compte. On utilise d'abord des profils de vent constant sans turbulence, puis l'effet du cisaillement du vent et de la turbulence atmosphérique sont inclus à l'aide de la théorie de la similitude de Monin-Obukhov. De bons accords sont obtenus avec des mesures sur site éolien lorsque l'on considère à la fois les bruits de bord de fuite et d'impact de turbulence. On retrouve à l'aide du modèle les caractéristiques classiques du bruit des éoliennes, comme la directivité et les modulations d'amplitude. Des comparaisons avec un modèle semi-empirique montrent que le bruit de décrochage peut être significatif dans certains conditions.L'étape suivante consiste à coupler la théorie d'Amiet avec des modèles de propagation pour estimer le bruit à un récepteur en champ lointain. On étudie dans un premier temps un modèle analytique de propagation en conditions homogènes au-dessus d'un sol d'impédance finie. On montre que l'effet de sol modifie la forme des spectres de bruit, et augmente les modulations d'amplitude dans certains tiers d'octave. Dans un second temps, une méthode pour coupler le modèle de source à un code d'équation parabolique est proposée et validée pour prendre en compte les effets de réfraction atmosphérique. En fonction de la direction de propagation, les niveaux de bruit varient car l'effet de sol est influencé par les gradients de vent et car une zone d'ombre est présente dans la direction opposée au vent. On discute pour finir l'approximation de source ponctuelle à l'aide des modèles de propagation analytique et numérique. / The purpose of this work is to model wind turbine noise sources and propagation in the atmosphere in order to better understand the characteristics of wind turbine noise at long range and to help wind turbine manufacturers and wind farm developers meet the noise regulations. By coupling physically-based aeroacoustic source and propagation models, we are able to predict wind turbine noise spectra, directivity and amplitude modulation in various atmospheric conditions.Broadband noise generated aerodynamically, namely turbulent inflow noise, trailing edge noise and separation/stall noise, is generally dominant for a modern wind turbine. Amiet's analytical model is chosen to predict turbulent inflow noise and trailing edge noise, considering several improvements to the original theory: 1, an empirical leading edge thickness correction is introduced in the turbulent inflow noise calculation; 2, a wall pressure fluctuation spectrum model proposed recently for adverse pressure gradient flow is used in the trailing edge noise predictions. The two models are validated against several wind tunnel experiments from the literature using fixed airfoils.Amiet's model is then applied on a full-size wind turbine to predict the noise emission level in the near field. Doppler effect and blade rotation are taken into account. Cases with constant wind profiles and no turbulence are used first, then wind shear and atmospheric turbulence effects obtained from Monin-Obukhov similarity theory are included. Good agreements against field measurements are found when both turbulent inflow noise and trailing edge noise are considered. Classical features of wind turbine noise, such as directivity and amplitude modulation, are recovered by the calculations. Comparisons with a semi-empirical model show that separation noise might be significant in some circumstances.Next, Amiet's theory is coupled with propagation models to estimate noise immission level in the far-field. An analytical model for the propagation over an impedance ground in homogeneous conditions is studied first. The ground effect is shown to modify the shape of the noise spectra, and to enhance the amplitude modulation in some third octave bands. A method to couple the source model to a parabolic equation code is also proposed and validated to take into account atmospheric refraction effects. Depending on the propagation direction, noise levels vary because the ground effect is influenced by wind shear and a shadow zone is present upwind. Finally, the point source assumption is reviewed considering both the analytical and numerical propagation models.

Appropriate calculation of surface turbulent fluxes between the atmosphere and the underlying surface is one of the major challenges in geosciences. In practice, the surface turbulent fluxes are estimated from the mean surface meteorological variables based on the bulk transfer model combined with Monnin-Obukhov Similarity (MOS) theory. Few studies have been done to examine the extent that to which this flux parameterization framework can be applied to different weather and surface conditions. A novel validation method is developed in this thesis research, which is applied to evaluate the surface flux parameterization using in-situ observations. The main findings are: (a) the theoretical prediction that uses MOS theory does not match well with those directly computed from the observations collected in the coastal region. (b) Large spread in exchange coefficients mainly occurs in the calm wind regime with strong stability. (c) Large turbulent eddies, which depend largely on the mean flow and surface conditions, tend to break the constant flux assumption in the surface layer.

In the wind resource and wind turbine suitability industry Computational Fluid Dynamics has gained widespread use to model the airflow at proposed wind farm locations. These models typically focus on the neutrally stratified surface layer and ignore physical process such as buoyancy and the Coriolis force. These physical processes are integral to the accurate description of the atmospheric boundary layer and reductions in uncertainties of turbine suitability and power production calculations can be achieved if these processes are included. The present work focuses on atmospheric flows in which atmospheric stability and the Coriolis force are included. The study uses Monin-Obukhov Similarity Theory to analyse time series data output from a proposed wind farm location to determine the prevalence and impact of stability at the location. The output provides the necessary site data required for the CFD model as well as stability-dependent wind profiles from measurements. The results show non-neutral stratification to be the dominant condition onsite with impactful windfield changes between stability conditions. The wind flows considered in this work are classified as high Reynolds number flows and are based on numerical solutions of the Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes equations. A two-equation closure method for turbulence based on the k __ turbulence model is utilized. Modifications are introduced to standard CFD model equations to account for the impact of atmospheric stability and ground roughness effects. The modifications are introduced by User Defined Functions that describe the profiles, source terms and wall functions required for the ABL CFD model. Two MOST models and two wall-function methods are investigated. The modifications are successfully validated using the horizontal homogeneity test in which the modifications are proved to be in equilibrium by the model�s ability to maintain inlet profiles of velocity and turbulence in an empty domain. The ABL model is applied to the complex terrain of the proposed wind farm location used in the data analysis study. The inputs required for the stability modifications are generated using the available measured data. Mesoscale data are used to describe the inlet boundary conditions. The model is successfully validated by cross prediction of the stabilitydependent wind velocity profiles between the two onsite masts. The advantage of the developed model is the applicability into standard wind industry loading and power production calculations using outputs from typical onsite measurement campaigns. The model is tuning-free and the site-specific modifications are input directly into the developed User Defined Functions. In summary, the results show that the implemented modifications and developed methods are applicable and reproduce the main wind flow characteristics in neutral and non-neutral flows over complex wind farm terrains. In additions, the developed method reduce modelling uncertainties compared against models and measurements that neglect non-neutral stratification. / Dissertation (MEng)--University of Pretoria, 2018. / Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering / MEng / Unrestricted

Turbulent mixed convection is a complicated flow where the buoyancy and shear forces compete with each other in affecting the flow dynamics. This thesis deals with the near wall dynamics in a turbulent mixed convection flow over an isothermal horizontal heated plate. We distinguish between two types of mixed convection ; low-speed mixed convection (LSM) and high-speed mixed convection (HSM). In LSM the entire boundary layer, including the near-wall region, is dominated by buoyancy; in HSM the near-wall region, is dominated by shear and the outer region by buoyancy. We show that the value of the parameter (* = ^ determines whether the flow is LSM or HSM. Here yr is the friction length scale and L is the Monin-Obukhov length scale. In the present thesis we proposed a model for the near-wall dynamics in LSM. We assume the coherent structure near-wall for low-speed mixed convection to be streamwise aligned periodic array of laminar plumes and give a 2d model for the near wall dynamics, Here the equation to solve for the streamwise velocity is linear with the vertical and spanwise velocities given by the free convection model of Theerthan and Arakeri [1]. We determine the profiles of streamwise velocity, Reynolds shear stress and RMS of the fluctuations of the three components of velocity. From the model we obtain the scaling for wall shear stress rw as rw oc (UooAT*), where Uoo is the free-stream velocity and AT is the temperature difference between the free-stream and the horizontal surface.A similar scaling for rw was obtained in the experiments of Ingersoll [5] and by Narasimha et al [11] in the atmospheric boundary layer under low wind speed conditions. We also derive a formula for boundary layer thickness 5(x) which predicts the boundary layer growth for the combination free-stream velocity Uoo and AT in the low-speed mixed convection regime.

<p>Problems in the area of land/biosphere-atmosphere interaction, hydrology, climate modeling etc. can be systematically organized as a study of turbulent flow in presence of boundary conditions in an increasing order of complexity. The present work is an attempt to study a few subsets of this general problem of turbulence in natural environments- in the context of neutral and thermally stratified atmospheric surface layer, the presence of a heterogeneous vegetation canopy and the interaction between air flow and a static water body in presence of flexible protruding vegetation. The main issue addressed in the context of turbulence in the atmospheric surface layer is whether it is possible to describe the macro-states of turbulence such as mean velocity and turbulent velocity variance in terms of the micro-states of the turbulent flow, i.e., a distribution of turbulent kinetic energy across a multitude of scales. This has been achieved by a `spectral budget approach' which is extended for thermal stratification scenarios as well, in the process unifying the seemingly different and unrelated theories of turbulence such as Kolmogorov's hypothesis, Heisenberg's eddy viscosity, Monin Obukhov Similarity Theory (MOST) etc. under a common framework. In the case of a more complex scenario such as presence of a vegetation canopy with edges and gaps, the question that is addressed is in what detail the turbulence is needed to be resolved in order to capture the bulk flow features such as recirculation patterns. This issue is addressed by a simple numerical framework and it has been found out that an explicit prescription of turbulence is not necessary in presence of heterogeneities such as edges and gaps where the interplay between advection, pressure gradients and drag forces are sufficient to capture the first order dynamics. This result can be very important for eddy-covariance flux calibration strategies in non-ideal environments and the developed numerical model can be used in related dispersion studies and coupled land atmosphere interaction models. For other more complex biosphere atmosphere interactions such as greenhouse gas emissions from wetlands, the interplay between air and water, often in presence of flexible aquatic vegetation, controls turbulence in water, which in turn affect the gas transfer processes. This process of wind shear induced wave-turbulent-vegetation interaction is studied for the first time in the laboratory and the state of turbulence as well as the bulk flow is found to be highly sensitive to environmental controls such as water height, wind speed, vegetation density and flexibility. This dissertation describes and gradually develops these concepts in an increasing order of complexity of boundary conditions. The first three chapters address the neutral and thermally stratified boundary layers and the last two chapters address the canopy edge problem and the air-water-vegetation experiments respectively.</p> / Dissertation

Long-range communication proves to be a challenge due to the Earth’s curvature, since electromagnetic waves propagate away from the Earth’s surface in a free atmosphere. A possible solution to beyond line-of-sight communication is the atmospheric phenomenon known as the evaporation duct. Ducting occurs when the refractive index of the atmosphere rapidly decreases with height, which leads to ray trajectories bending inward towards the surface of the Earth, effectively creating a waveguide and enabling long-distance communication. In this work, the models by Paulus-Jeske and Babin-Young-Carton are investigated and implemented in MATLAB for calculation of the evaporation duct height and for modelling the refractive index of the atmosphere. The rapid decrease in refractive index giving rise to evaporation ducts occurs due to evaporation of water within the atmosphericsurface layer (&lt;100 m over the surface), which is the domain of turbulent mixing in the atmosphere. With atmospheric data from a Weather API by Meteomatics, Monin-Obukhov similarity theory for the atmospheric surface layer is combined with a bulk flux parameterization scheme from the COARE experiment to determine the air-sea fluxes in the lower troposphere. The surface layer variables with stability functions from Businger-Dyer, Beljaars-Holtslag, Cheng-Brutsaert, and the SHEBA experiment are used in the evaporation duct models proposed by Paulus-Jeske and Babin-Young-Carton to calculate the evaporation duct height, finding that the latter is a valid method with Monin-Obukhov stability functions based on the SHEBA experiment. The modelled refractive index is inserted into an already existing wave propagation model to investigate and validate the findings. / Långdistanskommunikation är en utmaning på grund av jordens krökning, eftersom elektromagnetiska vågor sprider sig bort från jordens yta vid propagering i fri atmosfär. En möjlig lösning för kommunikation bortom siktlinjen är det atmosfäriska fenomenet som kallas avdunstningskanal. Det uppstår när atmosfärens brytningsindex snabbt minskar med höjden, vilket leder till att strålbanorna böjer sig inåt mot jordens yta, vilket i praktiken skapar en vågledare och möjliggör långdistanskommunikation. I detta arbete undersöks och implementeras modeller beskrivna av Paulus-Jeske och Babin-Young-Carton i MATLAB för beräkning av avdunstningskanalens höjd och för modellering av atmosfärens brytningsindex. Den snabba minskningen av brytningsindexet som ger upphov till avdunstningskanaler beror på avdunstning avvatten i det atmosfäriska ytskiktet (&lt;100 m över ytan), som är det område där den turbulenta blandningen i atmosfären sker. Med atmosfäriska data från Weather API av Meteomatics kombineras Monin-Obukhovs likvärdighetsteori för det atmosfäriska ytskiktet med ett parametriseringsschema för bulkflöden från COARE-experimentet för att bestämma luft- och havsflödena i den nedre troposfären. Variablerna för ytskiktet med stabilitetsfunktioner från Businger-Dyer, Beljaars-Holtslag, Cheng-Brutsaert och SHEBA-experimentet används i de modeller för avdunstningskanaler som föreslagits av Paulus-Jeske och Babin-Young-Carton för att beräkna avdunstningskanalens höjd, varvid det konstateras att den sistnämnda metoden är en giltig metod med Monin-Obukhovs stabilitetsfunktioner baserade på SHEBA-experimentet. Det modellerade brytningsindexet införs i en redan befintlig vågutbredningsmodell för att undersöka och validera resultaten.