The purpose of the study was to investigate how farmers in Quang Bing Province, Vietnam have been making the transition from subsistence farming to commercial agriculture. This process began in 1986 when the Vietnam economy changed from central planning to a market orientation. The research strategy was based on case study analysis of two communes in each of three agro-ecological zones, defined as coastal, plains and mountains. Within each commune there were six embedded household case studies, i.e 36 in total. Case studies were selected purposively to capture diversity of agro-ecological zones, market access and communications, wealth and income status, and ethnic communities. Households were interviewed twice; first in either late 2006 or early 2007, and again in late 2008. The study was approached using a constructivist paradigm and a lens of livelihood analysis, focusing on resources, institutions, interventions and the dynamics of change. Particular attention was given to the development of markets (inputs, outputs, land, labour and credit) and supply chain factors. Separate measures of commercialisation were constructed based on outputs and inputs, and at the level of both individual activities and the overall household. Investigations were informed by existing theory, but no hypotheses were tested. Instead, the research focused on emergent patterns and insights, and the enrichment and modification of existing theory. A review of literature indicated that the transition from subsistence farming to commercial agriculture in Vietnam was different from other countries on account of the specific combination of low technology agriculture, typical of much of developing Asia, combined with the transformation from a centrally planned economy to a market orientation as occurred in Central and Eastern European countries. At commune level, the key determinants of commercialisation were strong physical connections to markets, with good road access being paramount. Once all weather road access for motorised vehicles was available, then rapid commercialisation occurred. Supply chains typically developed faster for outputs than inputs. New technologies that increased the yield of basic food crops, and facilitated by Government and NGO programs, led to the release of land resources no longer required for meeting food security needs. Households retained their production of food crops that provided food security, and added additional cash earning activities. At the level of individual households, the commercialisation process was led by entrepreneurial families who perceived opportunities relating to profitable activities, and combined this with hard work. Often these opportunities were linked to what they had observed or learnt elsewhere. Once first movers took up a new technology, others observed and followed. There were many enabling factors, such as access to land, access to capital, and access to credit. However, none of these could be considered a determinant, in that the absence of any one factor did not by itself preclude successful commercialisation. Absence of an active male worker was a major constraint to commercialisation, as was lack of necessary crop and livestock skills. There was evidence that income disparities were increasing between the wealthy and the poor. Output commerciality across all households averaged 88 % in 2008 and was higher for wealthy households (95 %) than poor households (83 %). All households still produced their own food crops, but these crops had low market values and hence had a low impact on the output commerciality index. Output commerciality measured in percentage terms obscured that wealthy families had net incomes almost 13 times greater than poor households. A major theoretical insight was that key commercialisation factors are multiple and context dependent. Accordingly, there is a need in any investigation for a holistic approach, based on a livelihood framework that incorporates the complexities associated with the development of markets, as well as giving consideration to the range of interventions and institutional policies that impact on livelihood development.

This study was undertaken to research the principles and practices behind increased pasture productivity on Longslip Station, Omarama. A range of landscape - soil - climate - plant systems were identified, then analysed and the legume responses measured. By isolating cause and effect and appreciating the driving variables of each system, lessons learnt could be reliably and objectively transferred to the rest of the farm. Extrapolation to the balance of the property (15,150 ha) permitted immediate large-scale development and engendered confidence to lending institutions, Lands Department, catchment authorities and ourselves. Soil (land) cannot be well managed and conserved unless it is mapped reliably and its characteristics measured and interpreted by skilled observers (Cutler, 1977). Soil resource surveys, and their interpretation, are an essential ingredient of rational resource evaluation and planning. This thesis is a figurative and comparative survey and study of the soil catenary bodies, resident vegetation, legume establishment and pasture production characteristics of a 400 hectare catchment, in relation to, and as influenced by soil landscape unit, slope component, altitude, aspect and time. The inherent diversity in landform, soil properties and vegetation communities in a single catchment in the high country has not previously been fully studied or appreciated. This has lead to blanket recommendations for fertilizer, seed and management regimes both within and between properties and even regions. This study reports on the diversity of, yet predictable change in soil properties with slope position (upper, middle and lower) aspect and altitude in terms of both soil physical properties e.g. soil depth and water holding capacity and soil chemical properties such as pH, BS%, %P, %S, %N and %C. The composition of the resident vegetation and its differential response to oversowing and topdressing and subsequent change through time is reported and discussed. Finally an epilogue gives an insight into the problems and frustrations of farming practices in the high country from a motivation and personal perspective and political point of view that it is essential to come to terms with.

By far the greatest proportion of the 1,150,000 acres of light land in Canterbury is found on the Canterbury Plain. This plain, originally covered by "low tussock" and of easy contour, was enticing to the early pioneers and became one of the earliest areas in New Zealand to be settled and farmed. Over the years it has developed into one of the most intensively farmed and productive areas of New Zealand. The dominant characteristic of the light land of Canterbury is undoubtedly the climate. The rainfall is reasonably evenly distributed over the year, but because of the low humidity, high temperatures and warm winds experienced over the summer in association with a free draining soil, the effectiveness of the rainfall over this period is drastically reduced. Consequently active plant growth is severely restricted for several months over the summer, and occasionally extends into the spring and/or autumn periods. The uncertainty as to the length and severity of this restricted growth period and the associated problem of equating the variable feed supply to the stock requirements, both within and between years, is the basic problem confronting the light land farmer. In spite of the environmental difficulties the productivity of the light land has increased several fold since early settlement. The original holdings on the Canterbury Plain were large with their boundaries on the rivers so as to provide access to water. Fine wool sheep were extensively grazed. However the introduction of refrigerated shipping and the extension of the water race system in the 1880's brought about a reduction in the size of holdings and a change in the pattern of farming. Dual purpose sheep were run and by the 1930's in response to favourable crop prices the system of diversified farming was firmly established. Unfortunately this system placed excessive emphasis on cash cropping, particularly on the light soils. Soil fertility was drained, structure severely damaged and subsequent pasture establishment and survival poor. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, with declining crop yields and with more favourable prices being obtained for fat lambs and particularly wool, the emphasis shifted from cropping to livestock farming. The carrying capacity however, was restricted by the reduced soil fertility and poor quality pastures and an environment in which climatic uncertainty tended to inhibit the rapid expansion of stock numbers. The results of research work carried out at the various institutions in Canterbury over the years have undoubtedly promoted a greater understanding and appreciation of the problems confronting the farmer and the limitations of the particular environment in which he must operate. For example, pasture species more suited to the low fertility conditions and climate were introduced with spectacular results. The most significant of these was subterranean clover (introduced in the 1930s), noted for its ability to withstand the summer droughts, to regenerate in the autumn, and to provide an increased bulk of feed in the spring. Research work had shown that both lime and phosphate were necessary on the light land soils, if high pasture production and persistency was to be expected. Soil fertility increased subsequent to a reduction in the emphasis on cropping and with the higher levels of fertiliser application. High fertility pasture species (e.g. white clover and lucerne), were introduced and not only gave higher and more reliable total production but exhibited improved seasonal spread of production. Investigations into pasture diseases and stock health provided answers to specific problems. Research into flock management generally and in comparisons between the productivity of various sheep breeds indicated the most suitable type of flock and breed for the light land farmer. From this and other research work (in conjunction with the observations of leading farmers in the area), an efficient system of light land farming has gradually evolved in which many of the basic problems have been overcome and which has resulted in a raising of the carrying capacity of the light land from ¾ stock unit per acre in the 1930's to 3½-4 stock units per acre at present. A central feature of this system (particularly at high stocking rates), is the high degree of flexibility incorporated in both the stock policies and feed supplies. Where the objective function is to maximise productivity over a period of years, it is essential to utilise the available spring feed efficiently while maintaining the ability to destock when confronted with feed shortages in the spring and early summer. Because of the fluctuating feed supply, which is characteristic of light land, the need to maintain feed reserves and to incorporate a high degree of flexibility in the stock policy is evident if the feed supply and demand are to be equated. In summary, the increased productivity can be attributed to two factors: (1) The ability to grow a greatly increased quantity of herbage per acre with an improved seasonal pattern of production. (2) A more efficient utilisation of the herbage produced. Unlike his counterpart in more reliable farming districts, the light land farmer operates in an environment of uncertainty. Yield uncertainty, particularly at high stocking rates, is the major problem to be overcome and this dictates very largely the system of farming adopted. Price uncertainty is also a significant aspect of light land farming because of the reliance on a limited range of products and the inability to diversify. In an analysis of physical and financial data collected from a sample of light land farms in Canterbury (1) there was no evidence to suggest that any one particular pattern of output was superior to all others. This result was surprising, but may reflect the uncertainty inherent in the environment. (1) For a full discussion on this, see Section 3.3.2(a). Alternatively it may infer that the actual patterns of production are less important than the managerial skill with which they are implemented. These results pointed to the need to explore more fully the following facets of light land management: (1) Given a developed farm, is there any one optimal pattern of production which (a) generates increased profit under average seasonal and price conditions, and (b) is subject to only small variations in profit under changing seasonal and price conditions? (2) Given the potential for the development and expansion of light land farming, how profitable is this from the individual farmer's viewpoint? If, in an evaluation of the first problem, high levels of productivity are shown to be profitable on existing well developed farms, then a reallocation of resources to obtain the desired combination should be recommended. An optimum combination of enterprises shown by such an analysis might well serve as the goal where an undeveloped potential still exists on a farm and where a reallocation and intensification in the use of resources is necessary if productivity is to be increased. In this study of light land farming two case farms have been used and although the results refer specifically to these particular farms, some conclusions of a general nature are possible. In Chapter II the physical characteristics of the area are described. In Chapter III a review of the research into specific problems relating to the management of light land is presented. This is followed in Chapter IV by an explanation of the technical principles of light land farming which have evolved. Chapter V is devoted to the comparison of some of the production possibilities open to the light land farmer using linear programming. An analysis of light land development 1s presented in Chapter VI, while Chapter VII presents the conclusions and summary of the study.

This research focussed on Fair Trade (FT) coffee supply chains in Papua New Guinea. Three research questions were asked. First, do small holders in the FT chains receive higher returns than the smallholders in the conventional chains? Secondly, if smallholders in the FT coffee chains receive higher returns from their coffee than the smallholders in the conventional chains, what are the sources of these higher returns? Finally, if smallholders in the FT chains don't receive higher returns than in the conventional chains, what are the constraints to smallholders receiving higher returns from the FT coffee chains than the conventional chains? A conceptual framework for agribusiness supply chain was developed that was used to guide the field work. A comparative case study methodology was selcted as an appropriate method for eliciting the required information. Four case study chains were selected. A paired FT and conventional coffee chains from Okapa and another paired FT and conventional chains from Kainantu districts, Eastern Highlands Province were selected for the study. The research found that smallholders in the FT chains and vonventional chains receive very similar prices for their coffee (parchment price equivalent). Hence, there was no evidence that smallholders in the FT chains received higher prices or returns from their coffee production than smallholders in conventional chains. This study also found that there was no evidence of FLO certification improving returns to smallholders in the FT chains over those returns received in the conventional chains, but the community that the FT smallholder producers come from did benefit. The sources of these community benefits lies in the shorter FT chains and the distributions of the margin that would have been otherwise made by processors to producers, exporters and the community. In addition, this study found that constraints associated with value creation are similar in all the four chains studies. However, there are some added hurdles for the FT chains in adhering to FT and organic coffee standards. Moreover, FT co-oeratives lacked capacity to trade and their only functions were to help with FLO certification and distribute the FT premium to the community. The findings of this research support some aspects of the literature, but not others. The research contribution is the finding that in this period of high conventional coffee prices, returns to smallholders from FT chains were no bettter than the returns gained in conventional chains, which leads to oppotunism and lack of loyalty by smallholders in the FT chains. The other contribution of this research is in identifying a particular type of free rider who is not a member of the FT co-operative but has right to the community benefits generated by the FT chain.

Past development efforts in the Kingdom of Tonga are reviewed in relation to the goals of reducing poverty, unemployment and inequality. It is shown that progress has been strictly limited and evidence is provided to support the view that inadequate attention has been paid to agricultural improvement and rural development. The components, practices and institutional framework of the Tongan agricultural system are reviewed and possible future avenues of agricultural development are examined. Attention is drawn to those aspects where improvements are needed if agricultural development is to be promoted. These include an expanded programme of research, an upgrading of the agricultura1 extension effort, an overhaul of the 1and tenure system and a substantial improvement in agricultural product marketing; or, in short, an integrated programme of agricultural improvement and rural development. From a planning viewpoint, there is evidence of inadequate elaboration of development objectives, superficial identification of resources and insufficient knowledge concerning resource interactions, all of which have created confusion and uncertainty, particularly as regards the role of agriculture in the Kingdom's development. As a result, there is a lack of commitment to development efforts generally, and a tendency for activities on the fringes to be pursued at the expense of more fundamental issues. It is concluded that this situation results largely from the lack of an adequate information base, and that before an integrated plan for agricultural improvement can be developed, the network of interrelationships operating within the agricultural system needs to be understood. An information system is developed with the basic aim of providing information which will facilitate an understanding of how the agricultural system is integrated into the everyday lives of the people of Tonga. The concept adopted recognises the reciprocal relationships involved between agriculture and the rest of the economy. Using a systems research framework, the Tongan household agricultural system is defined in terms of its component parts, their interactive behaviour and their interrelationships. The key variables required for analysis are isolated and the production relationships in which rural households participate are specified. The information system provides for the observation of household decision making with particular reference to the allocation of labour, land use and the disposal of farm produce, and the disposition of cash earnings. The information framework is based on the premise that land is the most critical resource in Tongan agriculture. Information requirements are specified which will enable an assessment to be made of the effect of a number of factors on 1and productivity. The data collected will also enable valuable insights to be gained into issues such as land utilisation and methods of production; composition and disposition of agricultural output; household food consumption; marketing of agricultural produce; land tenure; sources of household income; net incomes from agriculture; participation in aid projects; and utilisation of loan finance.

By far the greatest proportion of the 1,150,000 acres of light land in Canterbury is found on the Canterbury Plain. This plain, originally covered by "low tussock" and of easy contour, was enticing to the early pioneers and became one of the earliest areas in New Zealand to be settled and farmed. Over the years it has developed into one of the most intensively farmed and productive areas of New Zealand. The dominant characteristic of the light land of Canterbury is undoubtedly the climate. The rainfall is reasonably evenly distributed over the year, but because of the low humidity, high temperatures and warm winds experienced over the summer in association with a free draining soil, the effectiveness of the rainfall over this period is drastically reduced. Consequently active plant growth is severely restricted for several months over the summer, and occasionally extends into the spring and/or autumn periods. The uncertainty as to the length and severity of this restricted growth period and the associated problem of equating the variable feed supply to the stock requirements, both within and between years, is the basic problem confronting the light land farmer. In spite of the environmental difficulties the productivity of the light land has increased several fold since early settlement. The original holdings on the Canterbury Plain were large with their boundaries on the rivers so as to provide access to water. Fine wool sheep were extensively grazed. However the introduction of refrigerated shipping and the extension of the water race system in the 1880's brought about a reduction in the size of holdings and a change in the pattern of farming. Dual purpose sheep were run and by the 1930's in response to favourable crop prices the system of diversified farming was firmly established. Unfortunately this system placed excessive emphasis on cash cropping, particularly on the light soils. Soil fertility was drained, structure severely damaged and subsequent pasture establishment and survival poor. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, with declining crop yields and with more favourable prices being obtained for fat lambs and particularly wool, the emphasis shifted from cropping to livestock farming. The carrying capacity however, was restricted by the reduced soil fertility and poor quality pastures and an environment in which climatic uncertainty tended to inhibit the rapid expansion of stock numbers. The results of research work carried out at the various institutions in Canterbury over the years have undoubtedly promoted a greater understanding and appreciation of the problems confronting the farmer and the limitations of the particular environment in which he must operate. For example, pasture species more suited to the low fertility conditions and climate were introduced with spectacular results. The most significant of these was subterranean clover (introduced in the 1930s), noted for its ability to withstand the summer droughts, to regenerate in the autumn, and to provide an increased bulk of feed in the spring. Research work had shown that both lime and phosphate were necessary on the light land soils, if high pasture production and persistency was to be expected. Soil fertility increased subsequent to a reduction in the emphasis on cropping and with the higher levels of fertiliser application. High fertility pasture species (e.g. white clover and lucerne), were introduced and not only gave higher and more reliable total production but exhibited improved seasonal spread of production. Investigations into pasture diseases and stock health provided answers to specific problems. Research into flock management generally and in comparisons between the productivity of various sheep breeds indicated the most suitable type of flock and breed for the light land farmer. From this and other research work (in conjunction with the observations of leading farmers in the area), an efficient system of light land farming has gradually evolved in which many of the basic problems have been overcome and which has resulted in a raising of the carrying capacity of the light land from ¾ stock unit per acre in the 1930's to 3½-4 stock units per acre at present. A central feature of this system (particularly at high stocking rates), is the high degree of flexibility incorporated in both the stock policies and feed supplies. Where the objective function is to maximise productivity over a period of years, it is essential to utilise the available spring feed efficiently while maintaining the ability to destock when confronted with feed shortages in the spring and early summer. Because of the fluctuating feed supply, which is characteristic of light land, the need to maintain feed reserves and to incorporate a high degree of flexibility in the stock policy is evident if the feed supply and demand are to be equated. In summary, the increased productivity can be attributed to two factors: (1) The ability to grow a greatly increased quantity of herbage per acre with an improved seasonal pattern of production. (2) A more efficient utilisation of the herbage produced. Unlike his counterpart in more reliable farming districts, the light land farmer operates in an environment of uncertainty. Yield uncertainty, particularly at high stocking rates, is the major problem to be overcome and this dictates very largely the system of farming adopted. Price uncertainty is also a significant aspect of light land farming because of the reliance on a limited range of products and the inability to diversify. In an analysis of physical and financial data collected from a sample of light land farms in Canterbury (1) there was no evidence to suggest that any one particular pattern of output was superior to all others. This result was surprising, but may reflect the uncertainty inherent in the environment. (1) For a full discussion on this, see Section 3.3.2(a). Alternatively it may infer that the actual patterns of production are less important than the managerial skill with which they are implemented. These results pointed to the need to explore more fully the following facets of light land management: (1) Given a developed farm, is there any one optimal pattern of production which (a) generates increased profit under average seasonal and price conditions, and (b) is subject to only small variations in profit under changing seasonal and price conditions? (2) Given the potential for the development and expansion of light land farming, how profitable is this from the individual farmer's viewpoint? If, in an evaluation of the first problem, high levels of productivity are shown to be profitable on existing well developed farms, then a reallocation of resources to obtain the desired combination should be recommended. An optimum combination of enterprises shown by such an analysis might well serve as the goal where an undeveloped potential still exists on a farm and where a reallocation and intensification in the use of resources is necessary if productivity is to be increased. In this study of light land farming two case farms have been used and although the results refer specifically to these particular farms, some conclusions of a general nature are possible. In Chapter II the physical characteristics of the area are described. In Chapter III a review of the research into specific problems relating to the management of light land is presented. This is followed in Chapter IV by an explanation of the technical principles of light land farming which have evolved. Chapter V is devoted to the comparison of some of the production possibilities open to the light land farmer using linear programming. An analysis of light land development 1s presented in Chapter VI, while Chapter VII presents the conclusions and summary of the study.

Historically, South Africans, particularly small-scale farmers have had little support and hence lack tools and information when faced with production decisions. Information plays an important role in enlightening people, raising their level of knowledge and in turn improving their standard of living and participation in decision making process. Research shows that Information Communication Technology (ICT) like Decision support tools (DSTs) plays an important role in systematic dissemination of information in agriculture, thus improving the quality of farmers’ decisions. Decision support tools provide up-to-date data, procedures and analytical capacity leading to better-informed decisions, especially in rural areas. A body of research is emerging around issues of effectiveness of DSTs for farmers in the developed world. However, few studies have focused on issues around effectiveness of these tools for farmers in the developing world, particularly for resource-limited farmers. This study set out to evaluate the effectiveness of a new DST for organic and small-scale farmers with a group of extension officers and researchers in KwaZulu-Natal. As an extension to the DST, a crop disease management component linked to the DST was developed. The study also set to evaluate the effectiveness of the crop disease management component. Extension officers and researchers were purposively selected for this study because both groups play a major role as far as organising and disseminating information to organic and small-scale farmers is concerned. This study identified key measures for effectiveness of DSTs and crop disease management guides using literature from the study. Two frameworks for measuring effectiveness were developed to evaluate the effectiveness of the new DST and its crop disease management component with the extension officers and researchers. Focus group discussions were used for data collection. The frameworks were used as a base for the focus group discussions. Focus groups were conducted to explore and establish whether in the light the groups (extension officers and researchers), the new DST and its crop disease management component are effective. Results from the study revealed that extension officers and researchers felt that the DST and its crop disease management component are effective since they meet key measures for effectiveness identified in the framework. The groups agreed that the DST and its crop disease management component are relevant to small-scale farmers. They also agreed that the DST has the ability to improve access to information for small-scale farmers. Lastly, they also agreed that the DST and its crop disease management component are transparent (meaning flexible and user friendly) for small-scale farmers. Some of the areas for improvement identified by the groups included a need for information on pests and more diseases for the DST and the crop disease management component. Although the groups felt that both the DST and crop disease management were effective, they strongly recommended a need for another study that will aim at developing a pest management component of the DST as this was clearly requested by groups in this study. Results of this study showed that half the respondents felt that the DST was easy enough to be used by small-scale farmers without help from extension officers, while the other half believed that small-scale farmers will still need the help of extension officers to show them how to use the DST. Government and other relevant institutions need to provide appropriate training for these farmers, making the DST useful to them. / Thesis (M.Agric)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2011.

Land degradation is a great threat to the Beshlo Catchment in Blue Nile Basisn, not merely as an environmental issue, but also a social and economic problem. In Gedalas Watershed (one of the micro catchments of Beshelo), land degradation, mediated by both biophysical and socio-economic drivers, is among the major environmental sustainability and social-economic development threats in the area. The threat is manifested in depletion of natural vegetations, water, soil and other natural resources; disruption of ecosystem functions, processes, integrity, and services. Given its particular vulnerability, watershed management activities have been in operation since the mid-1970s. Recently, the idea of Sustainable land management through integrated watershed development program has been initiated with the objective of reducing land degradation risks and ensuring food security at both the nationwide and family circle. Despite these investments and efforts, real evidences of success and failures of such efforts were not satisfactory explored. The objectives of this study were, therefore, to analyze the existing status and future prospects of sustainable land management and evaluates its implication on the environmental integrities and the local livelihoods specific to Gedalas watershed. For this effect, the study investigated the dynamics, deriving forces and implications of LULC, soil erosion and soil fertility status of the watershed, current status of watershed management practices, pertinent challenges and opportunities for practicing land management technologies and approaches that might help meet the sustainability requirements of SLM practices. In addition, the study explored factors that determine the willingness of farming households to undertake SLM practice. As the study carried in the coupled human-environment system of rural landscapes, interdisciplinary geographical approaches which integrats social and natural science methodologies were employed to deal with issues of land degradation-and-rehabilitation status comprehensively. The general findings of the study show that though it would be dificult to measure all the composite aspects of land degradation, some of the parameters considered in this study revealed that land degradation is a perpetuating challenge in the watershed. It is evidenced from the overall undesirable land use/cover changes i.e transition of 21.25% of Afro/sub alpine landscapes, 17.59% of the grasslands and 8% of shrub lands to either to cultivated land or settlement areas over the 1973–2017 period, which have unintended negative socio-ecological repercussions on the watershed; high annual mean soil loss value (which range from 37t/ha/year average values to 393 t/ha/yr soil loss rates on water courses) that exceed threshold level and a wide gap between the need for SLM and the actual achievement of SLM practices,including limited adherence to the idea behind contemporary land management policies and implementation principles and approaches. The study further revealed the presence of opportunities as well as a myriad of challenges that need to be tackled in order to achieve sustainable land management goals. The study colcludes that, though, some encouraging progresses have been observed in the SLM project sites; land degradation has remained a problem in the watershed. This calls for strenuous efforts to promote and assist wide scale adoption of SLM practices that address the pervasive land degradation problem and achieve land degradation neutrality as highlighted in sustainable development goals. / Department of Geography / Ph. D. (Geography)

<p dir="ltr"><a href="" target="_blank">ABSTRACT</a></p><p dir="ltr">A literature review was conducted, to determine and gain a better understanding of the environmental, technological, physiological, and psychological issues that lone agricultural workers potentially face in the event they are involved in an emergency. An investigation was conducted of communication devices used in other industries where working alone was common, to monitor for and detect incident occurrences. An assessment of currently available emergency alert software and sensing technology for <a href="" target="_blank">communication </a><a href="#_msocom_1" target="_blank">[AE1]</a> devices was also undertaken in this review.</p><p dir="ltr">Three hundred and sixty-eight U.S. cases of fatalities or injuries were analyzed in which working alone was identified as a contributing factor. Cases included lone agricultural workers, between the ages 15-64, who were identified from a convenient sample of incident reports from <a href="" target="_blank">2016-2021</a><a href="#_msocom_2" target="_blank">[AE2]</a> . Of the 368 lone agricultural worker incidents analyzed, 38% (140) were caused by tractor rollover or tractor runover, and ATV/ UTV rollovers. Grain bin entrapments accounted for 13% (48) of all identified cases, of which 86% (42) were fatal. Thirty-three percent (121) of the identified incidents involved equipment roll over (not including runovers), and 50% of identified victims, when age was known, were 57 years of age or older. In 11 cases (3%), the victim was under 15 years old and active in agricultural-related tasks at the time of incident occurrence.</p><p dir="ltr">Geospatial Information Systems (GIS) tools were used to identify the proximity of Emergency Medical Service (EMS) facilities and cellular towers from a convenient sample of 29 fatal and serious agricultural related injuries from 2016-2021, occurring in the state of Indiana. This analysis found that there were substantially fewer EMS facilities within close proximity to documented rural incident locations compared to injuries or fatalities occurring closer to a populated area. There were also fewer cellular towers within close proximity of incidents located primarily on or near rural agricultural land. More densely populated areas tended to have a greater density of EMS and cellular tower locations, with, most likely, more favorable outcomes from injuries due to shorter <a href="" target="_blank">response times.</a><a href="#_msocom_3" target="_blank">[AE3]</a></p><p dir="ltr">An investigation of the physical and operational impact that agricultural equipment would have on the efficacy of commercially available wearable technologies was undertaken, to detect the potential injury-causing agricultural incident. Five experiments were conducted to test the feasibility of these selected wearable devices in detecting agricultural-related incidents with the potential of causing serious injuries. Only one <a href="" target="_blank">simulated agricultural incident</a> <a href="#_msocom_4" target="_blank">[AE4]</a> successfully triggered incident detection. <a href="" target="_blank">Incidents successfully triggered incident detection on one wearable device, the Garmin Vivoactive 4 smartwatch. </a><a href="#_msocom_5" target="_blank">[AE5]</a></p><p dir="ltr">Recommendations included greater emphasis on the hazards associated with lone workers assigned agricultural workplaces, development of new, evidence-based educational resources to incorporate in current prevention strategies directed at farmers, ranchers, and agricultural workers, enhanced supervision of young agricultural workers and compliance with existing child labor regulations, equipping lone workers with appropriate cellphones and/ or wearable technologies to be carried in their vehicles, agricultural equipment, or on their person, use of electronic surveillance or monitoring equipment, written policies and procedures that enhance awareness of worker locations and conditions on a regular basis, and adherence to existing federal and state workplace safety and health regulations related to lone workers.</p><p><br></p><p dir="ltr"><a href="#_msoanchor_1" target="_blank">[AE1]</a>Changed</p><p dir="ltr"><a href="#_msoanchor_2" target="_blank">[AE2]</a>Fixed</p><p dir="ltr"><a href="#_msoanchor_3" target="_blank">[AE3]</a>I’m not sure how to address that more rural people are dying, given the limited scope and criteria for selection of the incidents selected in this study.</p><p dir="ltr"><a href="#_msoanchor_4" target="_blank">[AE4]</a>Not sure if this Is the best way to say it. I may end up cutting this part. I’ll pair the abstract down to ~250 words. For whatever reason, I thought the intro chapter abstract needed to be longer for a dissertation.</p><p dir="ltr"><a href="#_msoanchor_5" target="_blank">[AE5]</a>Shortened this paragraph and removed unnecessary detail, for clarity.</p>

<p>Breeding for improved animal welfare is paramount for increasing the long-term sustainability of the animal food industry. In this context, the main objectives of this dissertation were to understand the genetic and genomic background of welfare indicators in livestock and evaluate the feasibility of single-step Genomic Best Linear Unbiased Prediction (ssGBLUP) for performing genomic selection in beef cattle. This dissertation includes five studies. First, we aimed to test and identify an optimal ssGBLUP scenario for crossbreeding schemes. We simulated multiple populations differing based on the genetic background of the trait, and then we tested alternative models, such as multiple-trait weighted ssGBLUP. Even though more elaborated scenarios were evaluated, a single-trait ssGBLUP approach was recommended when genetic correlation across populations were higher than 0.70. The goal of the second study was to identify genomic regions controlling behavior traits that are conserved across livestock species. We systematically reviewed genomic regions associated with behavioral indicators in beef and dairy cattle, pigs, and sheep. The genomic regions identified in this study were located in genes previously reported controlling human behavioral, neural, and mental disorders. In the third study we used a large dataset (675,678 records) from North American Angus cattle to investigate the genetic background of temperament, a behavioral indicator, recorded on one-year-old calves, and provide the models and protocols for implementing genomic selection. We reported a heritability estimate equal to 0.38 for yearling temperament, and it was, in general, genetically favorably correlated with other productivity and fertility traits. Candidate genomic regions controlling yearling temperament were also identified. The fourth study was based on temperament recorded on North American Angus cows from 2 to 15 years of age (797,187 records). The goal was to understand the genetic and genomic background of temperament across the animal’s lifetime. By fitting a random regression model, we observed that temperament is highly genetically correlated across time. However, animals have differential learning and behavioral plasticity (LBP; changes of the phenotype overtime), although the LBP heritability is low. In our last study we evaluated foot scores (foot angle, FA; and claw set, CS) in American (US) and Australian (AU) Angus cattle aiming to assess the genetic and genomic background of foot scores and investigate the feasibility of performing an across-country genomic evaluation (~1.15 million animals genotyped). Foot scores are heritable (heritability from 0.22 to 0.27), and genotype-by-environment interaction was observed between US and AU Angus populations (genetic correlation equal to 0.61 for FA and 0.76 for CS). An across-country genomic prediction outperformed within-country evaluations in terms of predictivity ability (bias, dispersion, and validation accuracy) and theoretical accuracies. We have also identified genes associated with FA and CS previously reported in human’s bone structure and repair mechanism. In conclusion, this dissertation presents a comprehensive genetic and genomic characterization of welfare indicators (temperament and foot scores) in (inter)national livestock populations. </p>