Since the inception of the Internet there has been immense growth in the number of internet users worldwide, and the integration of social media in our daily lives has become commonplace for many. Yet, alongside the many benefits of this global connectivity come numerous risks. Research shows that individuals of all ages are exposed to, and engage in, risky activities online, despite numerous campaigns to highlight the perils of risky online behaviour. Although the rates of victimisation increase year-on-year, surprisingly little is known about the psychological mechanisms underlying online risk-taking. The work in this thesis aimed to address this gap in the psychological literature by conducting empirical research focussing on online risky behaviour and decision making across the lifespan. Four studies, conducted with individuals ranging in age from 13- to 79-years-old, investigated two online risk-taking behaviours, personal information disclosure and friending strangers, within the framework of Fuzzy Trace Theory. A further study investigated the posting of risky and inappropriate content online in British and Italian students, examining the role of self-monitoring and impulsivity. The work in this thesis reveals that Fuzzy Trace Theory is able to predict risk-taking and risk-averse behavioural intentions, and that the retrieval of gist-based, intuitive beliefs and values about online risk reduces risk-taking behaviour and intentions, whereas representing risk in a quantitative-based, verbatim manner leads to increased risk-taking intentions. The ability to reason using gist representations increases with age. Additionally, high self-monitoring was found to predict risky posting behaviour across different cultures. These findings offer a novel and important contribution to our theoretical and practical knowledge about risky online behaviour, and have the potential to inform the development of more effective online safety intervention programmes.

The behavioural changes which result from expansion and popularity of online platforms can be observed in day to day activities such as buying tickets, ordering food, and communicating with friends and family. From a technical perspective these platforms utilise similar technologies and infrastructures (e.g. the Internet, servers, and databases), however there are numerous conceptual and functional differences which can be identified between them. This research is associated with specific types of online platforms which are commonly referred to as Web 2.0 platforms. Popular examples of such platforms include Wikipedia, YouTube, and Facebook. These platforms rely upon user generated content and benefit from users’ collaborative efforts. Users’ efforts can be considered as a resource, and a possible objective in associated projects could be to optimise the outcome of such efforts. In many cases, this can be accomplished by influencing users’ Online Behaviour (OB). In Web 2.0 platforms, OB can be influenced by various factors, and among them Sense of Belonging (SB) has been highlighted by many previous researchers as a significant factor. While the literature suggests a significant association between SB and OB in Web 2.0 platforms, this research identifies a gap in the existing literature in regards to SB due to its qualitative nature and the dependency of associated investigations on human interaction. In addition to the subjective nature of such investigations, other practical challenges can be associated with measuring SB in Web 2.0 projects. Firstly, considering the demographical, cultural and lingual diversity of users in many Web 2.0 platforms, such investigations can be complex and therefore expensive. Secondly, investigating SB cannot be performed in real time which can result in extended timelines for gathering data. Thirdly, in early stages of Web 2.0 projects in which the concept is being defined and the platform is being developed, the users might not yet exist, and hence investigating their SB and OB may not be an option. Finally, without an existing platform and community, there is nothing to belong to, and hence SB might not exist to measure or investigate. As an attempt to fill the identified gap and provide practical solutions for highlighted challenges in Web 2.0 projects, this research introduces a new factor, and investigates its association with OB. Virtual Belonging (VB) is proposed as a factor built upon suggested elements for SB, and based on a new perspective towards Web 2.0 features. Furthermore, in any Web 2.0 platform, VB can be quantitatively defined, compared, and analysed. This research suggests three dimensions for VB, and their associations with OB are hypothesised. To test the research hypotheses, a Web 2.0 platform was developed in association with a student poetry competition in the University of Manchester, and it was used as the vehicle for an experiment (available at epsPoetry.com). The platform includes a bespoke Tracking System that has been specifically designed and developed to assist with this investigation. Also, Ethical Approval was obtained from the University’s Ethics Committees for the use of the data collected by the Tracking System from the individuals who have agreed to take part in this research and used the platform between March 2013 and July 2014.VB’s dimensions are presented in this research as a hierarchy with three distinct levels, namely Inclusion, Involvement, and Influence. The results show a significant association between every dimension of users’ VB and their OB. On this basis, this research proposes VB as a predictive factor for OB in Web 2.0 projects. The findings can provide practical guidance and directions for Web 2.0 project managers, particularly in the early stages of such projects in which the existence of users and their interactivity with the platform can only be an assumption, and hence obtaining qualitative data (such as SB) may not be an option.

This study explores the phenomenon of toxicity in the multiplayer online battle arenagame, League of Legends, from a player point of view. It also explores how time andspace is experienced through gaming related actions to better understand the contextualfactors. Along with that this study also aims at understanding how toxicity is perceived byplayers and how toxicity affects their everyday life in regards to time and space.A mixed phenomenological framework is applied to explore taken-for-grantedexperiences and most importantly, to understand how toxicity is perceived by the players.Along with this framework the concepts of time and space are used to analyse thepractices of everyday life, gaming practices and routines as well as to gain a betterunderstanding of how toxic behaviours in League of Legends affect everyday life.This study utilises in-depth semi-structured interviews with 13 participants togather data in the form of lived experience to better understand how toxicity is perceivedby regular players of the game. Results from this study indicate that players performpreparatory routine actions which helps establish a gaming space which alters how spaceand time is perceived. Within this space other actions are made to make space ‘feel right’.Other findings indicate that toxicity is perceived to be of different grades of seriousness,where the lowest grade consists of behaviours that are deemed as normalised and part ofthe game and the highest grade invokes feelings of hopelessness and frustration. Thisstudy claims that toxic behaviour in League of Legends does not affect everyday lifeactivities but instead can lead to intense frustration and destruction in the constructedgaming space. Finally, this thesis suggests that, due to the complexity of games, toxicityis studied along with corresponding contextual factors to be successfully explored.

In the recent decades, individual industries and whole sectors have been transformed due to the digital revolution. A combination of disruptive technologies and innovative business models, leading to new market opportunities and bringing unique values to customers. Companies that are primarily focused on the digitalization are able to scale their businesses faster and gain leading market positions. This thesis explored the impact of digitalization on the rail industry based on a business case by Bombardier Transportation (BT). Deregulation of the rail market and a focus on passengers’ experience was identified by BT as a business opportunity. Bombardier’s strategy was to extend products and services beyond those of a train operator, toward passengers. Bombardier initiated a project with code name “ON: BOARD” that was aimed at increasing journey experience by providing digital entertainment. However, the problem was the lack of knowledge regarding the passengers’ interest towards services provided under the scope of the project ON: BOARD, in particular in the Urban Area. The goal of this thesis was to observe passengers’ interest towards services of the project ON: BOARD traveling with Commuter trains in the area of Stockholm city. In order to meet the research goal and answer research questions, a qualitative method was selected. To be more precise, a survey with a structured questionnaire was conducted within a heterogeneous population. Non-probability quota-based sampling technique was selected. The collected data was analyzed based on descriptive statistical method, in particular, using one-way and cross-tabulation methods. Based on the research result the conclusion was following: passengers in the Urban area, in particular, commuter trains, were highly interested in the connectivity functionalities provided under the scope of project ON: BOARD. Thus, Bombardier was recommended to enter Urban Transport as the part of the market expansion strategy. / Under de senaste decennierna har individuella industrier och hela sektorer transformerats på grund utav den digitala revolutionen. En kombination av omvälvande teknologier och innovativa affärsmodeller har lett till nya marknadsmöjligheter och unika värden för kunder. Företag som är primärt fokuserade på digitalisering har möjligheten att snabbt skala deras affärsverksamhet och erhålla ledande marknadspositioner. Detta examensarbete har undersökt digitaliseringens effekt på järnvägsindustrin baserat på ett affärsfall av företaget Bombardier Transportation (BT). Avreglering av järnvägsmarknaden och fokus på passagerarupplevelse identifierades av BT som affärsmöjligheter. Bombardiers strategi var att utöka sina produkter och tjänster utöver det vanliga utbudet hos en tågoperatör, mot passagerare. Bombardier initierade ett projekt med kodnamn ”ON: BOARD” som syftade till att förbättra passagerarupplevelsen med hjälp av digital underhållning. En problematik uppstod dock på grund utav en bristande vetskap angående passagerarnas intresse om de tillhandahållna ON: BOARD-tjänsterna, speciellt i stadsområden. Målet med detta examensarbetet var att observera passagerarnas intresse av tjänster tillhandahållna via ON: BOARD, begränsat till pendeltåg runtom Stockholmsområdet. För att uppnå detta och att besvara de upprättade forskningsfrågorna valdes ett kvalitativt tillvägagångssätt. Det vill säga, en strukturerad enkätundersökning genomfördes inom en heterogen population. En icke-sannolikhetsbaserad och andelsbaserad samplingsteknik valdes som metod. Den insamlade datan analyserades med hjälp av statistiska metoder, framför allt användes ”one-way” och korstabulerings metoder. Baserat på resultaten och den efterföljande analysen tillhandahölls ledningen av BT rekommendationer. Utöver detta kartlades användarnas onlinebeteende med hjälp av resultaten och förslag till framtida forskning presenterades.

During the 21st century, the use of digital services has exploded. Companies are getting better at collecting and using data for their own gain. The increased collection of data has contributed to increased privacy concerns among many. This paper examines how a person’s attitude and knowledge about data collection can affect their online behavior. To examine this, a questionnaire survey was conducted. The study's results indicate that there is a paradoxical behavior among the respondents, since most people have a negative view of data collection, but do not take measures to reflect this attitude. Furthermore, the result suggests that knowledge about data collection acts as the primary motivator for taking measures to protect their data.   Keywords: Data collection, online behaviour, privacy paradox, GDPR, attitude, knowledge, privacy concerns / Under 2000-talet har användningen av digitala tjänster exploderat. Företag blir bättre på att samla in och använda data för deras egen vinning. Den ökade datainsamlingen har bidragit till en ökad oro kring personlig data hos många. Denna uppsats undersöker hur internetanvändares attityd och kunskap kring datainsamling kan påverka deras online-beteende. För att undersöka detta utfördes en enkätundersökning. Studiens resultat indikerar att det finns ett paradoxalt beteende hos respondenterna då de flesta har en negativ syn till datainsamling men vidtar inte åtgärder för att spegla denna attityd. Vidare tyder resultatet på att kunskap kring datainsamling agerar som den primära motivatorn för att vidta åtgärder för att skydda deras data.   Nyckelord: Datainsamling, online-beteende, Privacy Paradox, GDPR, attityd, kunskap. integritets-oro

Purpose: The purpose of this study is to contribute with a cross-country approach to the research about consumers’ online privacy concerns by investigating Greek and Swedish consumers’ privacy attitudes and behaviours in the digital marketplace. Theoretical framework: The study’s theoretical framework is based on the Power-Responsibility Equilibrium Theory (PRE) perspective and three of Hoftsede’s cultural dimensions; uncertainty avoidance, power distance, and individualism. Methodology: The study has a deductive approach with a quantitative research method. The data was collected by a questionnaire in each country which resulted in 232 answers in total. The answers were then analyzed in Microsoft Excel 16.41, SPSS 26.0, and SmartPLS 3.3.3. Findings: Findings indicate that the impact of power-holders on consumer privacy concerns, privacy empowerment and trust is more prominent for Swedish than for Greek consumers. Moreover, the impacts of privacy concerns, privacy empowerment and trust on consumers’ power-balancing strategies are more substantial for Greek than for Swedish consumers. Implications: The study contributes to the marketing field and academics studying consumers’ behaviour as it adds a cross-cultural approach to the investigation of consumers’attitudes on e-commerce from a PRE theory perspective. Additionally, they can have practical implications for marketers and policymakers in the e-commerce sector as they can gain some insight into how essential corporate privacy responsibility and regulations are to gain the trust of consumers and decrease their privacy concerns. Limitations: Since the study covers Greek and Swedish consumers, it is limited to countries with similar characteristics. Moreover, the majority of the respondents were under 35 years old and their opinions contradicted, not allowing most of the effects to be statistically significant enough to be considered. Originality/Value: Consumer privacy attitudes and behaviours on e-commerce have not been studied from both a power-responsibility equilibrium and a cultural dimensions perspective. This study adds a cross-country approach by studying Greek and Swedish consumers, while at the same time combining two theoretical perspectives.

This study centres on the psychological effects new digital media, like the internet and cellphones, have on adolescents. Although the internet has enormous benefits, it also poses a host of risks that can make adolescents vulnerable to victimisation and/or developing associated psychosocial problems. Characterisations of adolescents’ social relationships in the internet medium, as well as the investigation of the continuity between digital media literacy and online social behaviours, carry high relevance for developmental psychology. It is during the adolescent period that peer interactions arguably hold the greatest importance for individuals’ social and behavioural functioning. Using a logic model for evaluation, the researcher conducted an exploratory research study on digital media use among adolescent learners aged 13 to 15 years to determine whether schools could guide them to think critically for themselves about the entire realm of these new media. The data were gathered from school principals, teachers, parents and learners from three secondary schools in Gauteng Province, which were purposely selected to represent different socio-economic circumstances. A total of 230 people (n=230) participated in the research. Mixed research methods were employed in this study. The quantitative research methods supported the qualitative research methods. The literature review suggested that current media literacy education, which forms part of the Life Orientation curriculum, does not enable learners to think critically or make informed choices about their behaviour in the digital world – because it incorporates neither ethics nor responsibility. One of the main aims of the study therefore was to investigate the importance of expanding existing media literacy education, namely by incorporating two additional learning categories in the curriculum: Digital Safety and Security, and Digital Citizenship. These additional learning categories were introduced in the form of lessons by the teachers participating in the study. A think aloud strategy was used whereby learners verbalise what they were doing and learning while engaging in the digital media literacy lesson activities. The learners’ verbalisations were used to ascertain what learning was occurring in the classroom. The experimental group demonstrated an increase in critical thinking from pre- to post-evaluation. This research therefore proposes that the signature element of intervention strategies for inappropriate online behaviour be to create a “culture of critical thinking”. This implies greatly reducing the risks cyberspace pose, and at the same time enhancing adolescents’ abilities to use it in ways that create and deepen healthy relationships – in the digital as well as the real world. / Psychology / D. Litt. et Phil. (Psychology)

This study centres on the psychological effects new digital media, like the internet and cellphones, have on adolescents. Although the internet has enormous benefits, it also poses a host of risks that can make adolescents vulnerable to victimisation and/or developing associated psychosocial problems. Characterisations of adolescents’ social relationships in the internet medium, as well as the investigation of the continuity between digital media literacy and online social behaviours, carry high relevance for developmental psychology. It is during the adolescent period that peer interactions arguably hold the greatest importance for individuals’ social and behavioural functioning. Using a logic model for evaluation, the researcher conducted an exploratory research study on digital media use among adolescent learners aged 13 to 15 years to determine whether schools could guide them to think critically for themselves about the entire realm of these new media. The data were gathered from school principals, teachers, parents and learners from three secondary schools in Gauteng Province, which were purposely selected to represent different socio-economic circumstances. A total of 230 people (n=230) participated in the research. Mixed research methods were employed in this study. The quantitative research methods supported the qualitative research methods. The literature review suggested that current media literacy education, which forms part of the Life Orientation curriculum, does not enable learners to think critically or make informed choices about their behaviour in the digital world – because it incorporates neither ethics nor responsibility. One of the main aims of the study therefore was to investigate the importance of expanding existing media literacy education, namely by incorporating two additional learning categories in the curriculum: Digital Safety and Security, and Digital Citizenship. These additional learning categories were introduced in the form of lessons by the teachers participating in the study. A think aloud strategy was used whereby learners verbalise what they were doing and learning while engaging in the digital media literacy lesson activities. The learners’ verbalisations were used to ascertain what learning was occurring in the classroom. The experimental group demonstrated an increase in critical thinking from pre- to post-evaluation. This research therefore proposes that the signature element of intervention strategies for inappropriate online behaviour be to create a “culture of critical thinking”. This implies greatly reducing the risks cyberspace pose, and at the same time enhancing adolescents’ abilities to use it in ways that create and deepen healthy relationships – in the digital as well as the real world. / Psychology / D. Litt. et Phil. (Psychology)