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My dissertation examines three factors that influence women's workplace inequality: the Pregnancy Discrimination Act, the U.S. Supreme Court ruling in Meritor Saving Bank v. Vinson, and women "opting out" (i.e., voluntarily leaving) of work to take care of their families. Each of the three essays attempts to resolve one or more fundamental questions in the literature on women's workplace inequality. Additionally, each of these factors is described in its own essay, and these essays are presented in chronological order of the events they discuss. The first substantive chapter, Chapter Two, examines the association between the 1978 Pregnancy Discrimination Act (PDA) and women's employment rates, men's employment rates, and women's disadvantage in employment rates. The PDA declared pregnancy discrimination a type of sex-based discrimination, making it illegal under Title VII. Among other provisions, the PDA extended temporary disability benefits (TDB) to pregnant workers who were already covered by TDB for non-pregnancy-related conditions. This extension was designed to increase the likelihood of women's returning to work after giving birth. There is a debate within the literature on whether the PDA positively affected women, hurt women, or had no effect on women. This paper uses difference-in-difference modeling with Current Population Survey data from 1968 to 2010 to weigh in on this debate. There is a positive association between the PDA and the difference between men's and women's employment because it narrows the gap between women's and men's employment rates. However, the PDA had no effect on women's employment rates and a negative effect on men's employment rates. Chapter Three examines the association between wages and the 1986 U.S. Supreme Court decision in Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson, which declared workplace sexual harassment illegal under Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act. I test two hypotheses, a "naïve hypothesis," which argues that anti-sexual harassment policies increase women's wages, and a "critical hypothesis," which contends that these policies hurt or had no effect on women's wages. Using a difference-in-difference model with Current Population Survey data from 1977 to 2010, I find that there is a negative association between Meritor and women's wages. Furthermore, I find no association between Meritor and either men's wages or the gender wage ratio. Finally, Chapter Four examines the association between women opting out and socioeconomic status (SES). I explore two contrasting storylines within the opting out literature. The first storyline focuses on the lives of high-SES women and the likelihood that they opt out. The other storyline focuses on the lives of low-SES women and the likelihood that they opt out. It is important to note that neither storyline denies the existence of the other, but research that focuses solely on one class of women may miss a significant part of the story. Using the Current Population Survey from 1980 to 2009, I first describe the trends of opting out over this 30-year span. I then test six SES-related variables (education of spouse, education of respondent, household income, below poverty line, receive welfare income, and receive food stamps). I find that low-SES women are opting out at similar rates between 1980 and 2009, but the rates for high-SES women have declined. Additionally, I find overwhelming evidence that low-SES women are more likely to opt out. / Sociology

[pt] Esta dissertação teve como objetivo compreender o processo que leva as mulheres a saírem temporariamente do mercado de trabalho, para se dedicarem exclusivamente à maternidade, culminando no seu posterior reingresso. Tendo como foco mulheres de nível superior, esta pesquisa explorou os motivos que as levaram a interromper suas carreiras; os sentimentos vividos por elas durante o período de afastamento; e seus processos de reinserção no trabalho. A metodologia de estudo aplicada foi de natureza qualitativa, contando com entrevistas semiestruturadas com 15 mulheres que deixaram suas trajetórias profissionais para cuidar dos filhos. Os resultados revelaram que as entrevistadas não estão se afastando de suas carreiras apenas para cuidar dos filhos, mas por razões mais complexas que compreendem também aspectos relacionados ao trabalho e à ausência dos maridos. Além disso, constatou-se que, durante o tempo de afastamento, elas vivenciaram experiências mistas, que envolvem crises de identidade e os prazeres de acompanhar o desenvolvimento dos filhos. No tocante aos motivos para retornar ao trabalho, o alto comprometimento profissional foi um fator mencionado por muitas delas. Quanto aos obstáculos para recolocação, foram evidenciados os parâmetros: depreciação do capital humano e falta de auto-confiança. Acerca das estratégias para volta, as mais utilizadas pelas entrevistadas foram: acionar a rede de contatos e encontrar empregos mais flexíveis. Por fim, após o regresso delas ao trabalho remunerado, observou-se que as mulheres seguem sobrecarregadas, porém, alguns recursos permitem que elas equilibrem melhor a sempre difícil relação trabalho-família. / [en] This dissertation aimed to understand the process that leads women to temporarily leave the labor market, to dedicate themselves exclusively to motherhood, culminating in their subsequent reentry. Focusing on women with higher education, this research explored the reasons that led them to interrupt their careers; the feelings experienced by them during the period of absence, and; their reintegration processes at work. The applied study methodology was a qualitative nature, with semi-structured interviews with 15 women who left their professional trajectories to take care of their children. The results revealed that the interviewees are not moving away from their careers just to care for their children, but for more complex reasons that also include aspects related to work and the absence of their husbands. Also, it was found that, during the time of absence, they had mixed experiences, which involve identity crises and the pleasures of accompanying the development of their children. Regarding the reasons for returning to work, a high professional commitment was a factor mentioned by many of them. As for the obstacles to relocation, the parameters were highlighted: depreciation of human capital and deficit of confidence. About the strategies for return, the most used by the interviewees were: activate the network of contacts and find more flexible jobs. Finally, after their return to paid work, it was observed that women remain overloaded, however, some resources allow them to better balance the always difficult work-family relationship.

<p>Young councillors are currently under-represented in Sweden's municipalities. Young councillors are also stepping down in greater numbers than older members. This paper explores the reasons why young councillors choose to resign from their mission, so to identify possible remedies to the problematic trend of underrepresentation of younger people in local authorities in Sweden.</p><p>This qualitative essay intends, through interviewing politically-active young people who has left their assignment, to study the reasons for resignations from elected posts. To see what could be the reason I have looked at previous studies and theories about opting out but also tried to remain open to identifying new and emerging trends previously undetected in existing surveys.</p><p>The results showed that the political assignment proved to be too time-consuming, with young people choosing to spend their time on career and leisure. Those who resign from political life often express criticism towards the Municipal Council; they consider it tedious and many complain of having little influence. The increasing underrepresentation of younger people in political office and the fact that it is hard to recruit new active members shows that structural changes needs to be made to succeed in attracting new young members to political assignments.</p>

An increasing number of parents are opting-out their children from high-stakes. Accountability systems in education have used students' test scores to measure student learning, teacher effectiveness, and school district performance. Students who are opted-out of high-stakes tests are not being evaluated by the state tests, making their level of achievement or proficiency unknown by the state government. The purpose of this basic interpretive qualitative study was to gain an understanding of the various reasons, factors, experiences, and personal events that led parents to opt-out their children from at least one 3rd through 8th grade high-stakes test. Data were collected using a researcher-designed semi-structured interview protocol developed using ecological approaches to systems theories and critical pedagogy theories. The study was set in New York and 10 participants were interviewed, all from different rural or small suburban school districts throughout the state. Five themes and 12 subthemes emerged from first and second cycle coding. Key findings indicated that parents decided to opt-out their children from high-stakes tests because they felt high-stakes were inappropriate and unfair. Further, parents were dissatisfied with current high-stakes testing practices. Previous 3rd through 8th grade testing procedures that allowed teachers to make and grade the state tests were seen as acceptable. Parents indicated no issue with testing. However, from a social change perspective they felt the current system of high stakes testing was used improperly to rate students, teachers, programs, and school districts, and that testing should be used to drive instruction and help struggling students. This study is beneficial for school personnel and policy makers because it provides different ways to assess student achievement.

The thesis is bent on systematic analysis of Czech legislation de lege lata in organs taking for transplantation then on the part of received legal regulations. Subsequently equate to law those problems with other countries around the world and serves a comprehensive view of different solution of law. The way out of the theoretic parts is to incorporate problems among basic human rights, the right to live and the right of protection of personality, according to international convention and Czech laws. Theoretic part leads to the characteristics internationally recognized law principles for transplantation which is above all legal protection of organ donors warranted formulation of agreement or dissent from organs taking and pertinent grant the same possibilities for families. Further then certainty to define deaths brain and anonymity for deceased donors but also protection for the organs recipients and data confidentiality preservation with the possibility to antedate the donors and last but not least to ban pecuniary benefit and dealing with organs. The thesis comments on how these principles are projected in their legislation in particular countries in the world. The research was aimed to find out the relation between knowledgeable agreement or if you like knowledgeable dissent from fulfilment of organs taking and measurable transplantation records in particular countries. It used data, which were for the first time published on a world-wide scale by the world's health organization. As measurable result for transplantation was selected a number of deceased organs donors to one million inhabitants. The hypothesis confirmed that a country with legislation knowledgeable agreement, which means the country where the right requires knowledgeable agreement individually with organs taking, has worse measurable record than the country where's by law is to agreed to take organs expectedly unless it is used the right to deny it during the life of the organ donor. The other research investigated also the right that families can express their opinion on taking organs from deceased relative with a hypothetical presumption that the family decision can implicate to disrespect the universal personal law if it denies the will of the deceased person done during its life. At last the situation of absence of the right on family decision-making was surveyed. Such cases of other access to universal personal law did not notice better results in transplantations than there, where this right thoroughly applied in laws. This research brought a lot of interesting information on access of organs taking for transplantations in different parts of the world. This fact contributed to recognition on how important is the influence of morale and ways on legislation of appropriate country and how legislation influences results of transplantation in creditable life-saving process.

Young councillors are currently under-represented in Sweden's municipalities. Young councillors are also stepping down in greater numbers than older members. This paper explores the reasons why young councillors choose to resign from their mission, so to identify possible remedies to the problematic trend of underrepresentation of younger people in local authorities in Sweden. This qualitative essay intends, through interviewing politically-active young people who has left their assignment, to study the reasons for resignations from elected posts. To see what could be the reason I have looked at previous studies and theories about opting out but also tried to remain open to identifying new and emerging trends previously undetected in existing surveys. The results showed that the political assignment proved to be too time-consuming, with young people choosing to spend their time on career and leisure. Those who resign from political life often express criticism towards the Municipal Council; they consider it tedious and many complain of having little influence. The increasing underrepresentation of younger people in political office and the fact that it is hard to recruit new active members shows that structural changes needs to be made to succeed in attracting new young members to political assignments.

Dans cette thèse, nous étudions les effets d'un environnement stochastique et de l'utilisation d'une stratégie d'opting-out sur l'évolution de la coopération dans les jeux évolutionnaires. La thèse contient 8 articles, dont 6 sont déjà publiés dans des revues avec comité de lecture. Outre l'introduction, la thèse est divisée en deux parties, la partie 1 composée de 5 articles et la partie 2 de 3 articles. La partie 1 étudie l'impact de gains randomisés dans les jeux évolutionnaires. L'article 1 introduit les concepts de stabilité pour les jeux avec matrice de paiement aléatoire 2x2 dans des populations infinies avec des générations discrètes sans chevauchement dans un environnement stochastique. On y donne les conditions pour qu'un équilibre, sur la frontière ou à l'intérieur du simplexe des fréquences des stratégies, soit stochastiquement localement stable ou instable. L'article 2 étend les résultats de l'article 1 au cas où la valeur sélective est une fonction exponentielle du gain attendu suite à des interactions aléatoires par paires et montre que, de manière inattendue, le bruit aléatoire environnemental peut rompre un cycle périodique et favoriser la stabilité d'un équilibre intérieur. L'article 3 discute des effets de la sélection faible. Alors que les conditions de stabilité dans un environnement aléatoire reviennent aux conditions du cas déterministe lorsque l'intensité de la sélection diminue, les fluctuations aléatoires des gains peuvent accélérer la vitesse de convergence vers un équilibre stable sous une sélection plus faible. L'article 4 applique la théorie de la stabilité évolutive stochastique à un jeu randomisé de dilemme du prisonnier. On y montre que l'augmentation de la variance des gains de défection est propice à l'évolution de la coopération. L'article 5 étudie les jeux matriciels randomisés dans des populations finies et donne les conditions pour que la sélection favorise l'évolution de la coopération dans le contexte du jeu randomisé de dilemme du prisonnier. La partie 2 considère un jeu répété de dilemme du prisonnier dans le cas où un comportement d'opting-out est adopté par chaque joueur dans les interactions par paires. L'article 6 étudie la dynamique évolutive de la coopération et de la défection dans ce contexte et montre une possible coexistence à long terme, en supposant une population infinie et un équilibre rapide (en fait, instantané) dans les fréquences des paires. L'article 7 rapporte des résultats expérimentaux avec 264 étudiants universitaires utilisant la stratégie d'opting-out qui soutiennent la prédiction théorique d'une coexistence à long terme de coopération et de défection. L'article 8 étend l'analyse du modèle avec la stratégie d'opting-out au cas d'une population finie et fournit une preuve rigoureuse des deux échelles de temps pour les fréquences de coopération et de défection d'une part et les fréquences de paires de stratégies d'autre part. / In this thesis, we study the effects of a stochastic environment and the use of an opting-out strategy on the evolution of cooperation in evolutionary games. The thesis contains 8 articles, among which 6 are already published in peer-reviewed journals. Apart from the introduction, the thesis is divided into two parts, Part 1 made with 5 articles and Part 2 with 3 articles. Part 1 studies randomized payoffs in evolutionary games. Article 1 introduces stability concepts for 2x2 matrix games in infinite populations undergoing discrete, non-overlapping generations in a stochastic environment and gives conditions for an equilibrium, either on the boundary or in the interior of the simplex of all strategy frequencies, to be stochastically locally stable or unstable. Article 2 extends the results of Article 1 to the case where fitness is an exponential function of expected payoff in random pairwise interactions and shows that, unexpectedly, environmental random noise can break a periodic cycle and promote stability of an interior equilibrium. Article 3 discusses the effects of weak selection. While stability conditions in a random environment return to conditions in the deterministic case as selection intensity diminishes, random fluctuations in payoffs can accelerate the speed of convergence toward a stable equilibrium under weaker selection. Article 4 applies stochastic evolutionary stability theory to a randomized Prisoner's dilemma game and shows that increasing the variance in payoffs for defection is conducive to the evolution of cooperation. Article 5 studies randomized matrix games in finite populations and gives conditions for selection to favor the evolution of cooperation in the context of a randomized Prisoner's dilemma. Part 2 considers a repeated Prisoner's dilemma game with an opting-out behavior adopted by every player in pairwise interactions. Article 6 studies the evolutionary dynamics of cooperation and defection in this context and shows possible long-term coexistence, assuming an infinite population and fast (actually, instantaneous) equilibrium in the pair frequencies. Article 7 reports experimental results with 264 university students using the opting-out strategy that support the theoretical prediction of a long-term coexistence of cooperation and defection. Article 8 extends the analysis of the model with the opting-out strategy to the case of a finite population and provides a rigorous proof of the two-time scales for the frequencies of cooperation and defection on one hand and the frequencies of strategy pairs on the other.