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This dissertation investigates the impact of organic farming for achieving the environmental and social objectives of sustainability in Europe over the past 20 years. Organic farming is considered the poster child of rural development in Europe, often seen as a model of the integration of small-scale production with environmental considerations. Since this model runs counter to the logic of developing capitalist structures in agriculture, I revisit the Marxian predictions regarding the "agrarian question". Furthermore, I trace the discursive changes in support of small-scale production in the EU's Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), and assess whether small farms have improved their situation under the revised CAP. Subsequently, I use statistical analysis in order to assess the socio-economic and the environmental consequences of the rise in organic farming. Contrary to what is often assumed, organic farms in Europe display larger average sizes and lower rates of labor intensity than their conventional counterparts, casting doubts on the efficacy of organic farms to allow family farmers to remain in the countryside as high-value producers. I argue that this this development should be viewed as further evidence of the "conventionalization" of organic farming. In order to explain the process which led to such an outcome, I proceed to explain the different ways through which organic farms could overcome traditional problems which impeded the capitalist development of agriculture. Regarding the environmental implications, I evaluate the rise of organic farming by assessing its impact for different countries' overall pesticide and fertilizer intensity. My results are mixed, with higher organic shares being correlated with decreased application of fertilizer, but less significant results for pesticide intensity.

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This study investigates the role of non-traditional enterprises in rural economies and attempts to understand farmers’ decision to adopt non-traditional enterprises. Three separate mail surveys were conducted to collect socio-economic data from biological and organic, Angora goat, and ginseng farm enterprises. Descriptive statistics, Pearson χ² tests, and multinomial logit models were used to accomplish the objectives of the study. The analysis focuses on biological and organic, and Angora goat enterprises. The results of the analysis show that the principal operators of these enterprises were significantly younger, better-educated, better-off, and more likely to be a female in comparison to all Virginia farmers. The majority of farm operators came from non-rural backgrounds and their principal occupation is not farming. Only a very small percentage cited economic factors as the most important reason for starting the non-traditional enterprises. The most common information source used for planning and developing these new enterprises is books, magazines, or newsletters. The majority of respondents in both the biological/organic and Angora goat surveys did not perform any feasibility analyses prior to beginning their non-traditional enterprises. The farmers rated production and marketing as their major problems. In general, the majority of biological and organic farms and Angora goat farms were not profitable in 1993, and the income from these enterprises contributed very little to household income. However, it was found that biological and organic enterprises have played an important role in the economic survival of farmers with financial obstacles. The majority of farmers in the samples saw a bright future for their products. / Master of Science

The 48 members of the Ezemvelo Farmers' Organisation (EFO) in KwaZulu-Natal (KZN), South Africa (SA), that were fully-certified as organic farmers were surveyed during October-December 2004 to assess their perceived level of satisfaction, trust, cooperation and commitment in a formal supply chain producing amadhumbes (a traditional vegetable tuber), potatoes and sweet potatoes for a major SA supermarket group. Empirical recursive models show that a high level of satisfaction in the working relationship results in these farmers trusting the pack-house agent more. High levels of trust, in turn, lead to higher levels of both commitment to, and cooperation in, the supply chain. A simultaneous-equation model showed that EFO farmers with higher levels of commitment tend to be more cooperative, and that members with higher levels of cooperation tend to be more committed toward the working relationship. These results suggest that strategies to improve the working relationship with the pack-house agent need to promote satisfaction, trust, cooperation and commitment. For example, co-investment in better crop storage facilities at farm-level would promote satisfaction and hence trust. There is also scope for more cooperation in the planning of new organic crop products to grow and market, and to remove some price uncertainty by giving EFO farmers more information about prices that they will be paid by the pack-house agent in this supply chain. In addition, satisfaction and, hence, trust, cooperation and commitment may be improved by adopting a formal contract between the EFO farmers and the pack-house agent to replace the current, incomplete verbal contract that governs trading. Some issues that may be addressed in this contract are improved communication systems via regular meetings, renegotiations of trading terms so that farmers can benefit from positive changes in organic crop prices; guidelines for paying farmers more quickly by the pack-house agent; mechanisms to trace crop quality to a specific farmer to avoid free riding; and penalties for breaching the contractual arrangements. The 48 EFO farmers were also asked to give their perceptions of the main constraints on organic crop production and marketing in the formal organic crop supply chain. They perceived that uncertain climate, unavailability of tractor or draught power when needed, delays in payments for crops sent to the pack-house, lack of affordable inputs (particularly labour and manure), a lack of cash and credit to finance inputs, lack of affordable transport to market crops, more work than the family can handle, a lack of manure to purchase; and a lack of crop storage facilities and telephones to negotiate sales as the current top 10 constraints. Principal Component Analysis summarized the underlying dimensions in the 20 constraints ranked by these farmers as indicating "lack of market information and lack of market power"; "crop production expansion constraints"; "commitment to crop area expansion"; "lack of liquidity"; "lack of proper storage facilities"; and "lack of information about alternative markets". Potential solutions to better manage these perceived constraints include: improved risk management practices (e.g., supplemental irrigation, water-harvesting and small boreholes), improving access to tractor services via improved tractor scheduling or using local contractor services, quicker pack-house delivery payments, improving quality inspection at the departure points at EFO farm-level to reduce crop rejection rates and "free riding" by producers of lower quality organic crops, more interaction with the retailer to promote sales of organic crops, providing advice on how the EFO farmers can improve their bargaining power, and providing more information (e.g. crop prices) about other organic markets and changing consumer preferences. Apparently, the costs and benefits of these potential solutions, and how they will be financed, need to be evaluated. Real accounting marketing margins since 2001 showed that the farmer's share of the consumer's rand for the 48 fully certified organic EFO farmers rose, while their net returns (selling price less accounting costs) were lower than those of the pack-house agent and hawkers selling at the Isipingo market on the South Coast of KZN. Net returns for the 48 EFO farmers also seemed to be relatively higher if they sold through the informal supply chain (hawkers) rather than the formal supply chain. The EFO farmers' net returns may be improved by lowering operating costs and by aggressive marketing to customers willing and able to pay a price premium for organic crops. These farmers may also consider performing some of t he marketing services themselves (e.g. crop cleaning, grading and packaging) if they have the skills and can access more finance. There are, however, hidden benefits from maintaining the formal supply chain relationship, as the pack-house agent helped to secure tractor services and fencing, and facilitates access to the retailer. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2005.

Antibiotics are routinely used in modern livestock production systems to treat and prevent disease as well as to enhance livestock production and/or outputs. This widespread use of antibiotics has led to a growing worldwide interest in antibioticfree animal production. The addition of feed supplements such as nucleotides to improve intestinal health as well as the early development of the immune system needs to be investigated as an environmentally-friendly nutritional management activity. In this study four (4) groups of newborn Holstein calves (n=24) were evaluated after being treated as follows: Group 1 (Negative control), Group 2 (Investigational Veterinary Product (IVP) 1 – Oral supplement containing nucleotides, vitamins, essential fatty acids, essential amino acids, pre-biotics and trace-minerals), Group 3 (IVP 2 – Oral supplement containing nucleotides only at concentration and dosage equal to IVP1) and Group 4 (IVP 3 - Parenteral glucocorticoids). Results of the study indicated that: Pre-colostral Serum IgG titres – After titration of the serum the anti-BVDV results showed no difference between the study groups. All calves recorded a SP ratio of zero value (0.00 ± 0.2) indicating that they had not been nursed by their mothers prior to the start of the study. This was an entrance requirement for the calves to be enrolled into the study. Apparent Efficiency of Absorption % (AEA%) – Literature shows that an AEA% result of between 20%-30% is good and 35% is excellent. The AEA% recorded for this study fell within this range although there was no statistically significant difference shown between the groups. In spite of a strictly controlled study protocol, 7 of the 24 calves (29%) still suffered from FPT in this study. The result falls within the range of 19% - 37% reported on United States of America (USA) farms by Doepel and Bartier in 2014. Serum cortisol - When compared to the control group, there were no statistical significant difference evident for group 2 and group 3. However, the difference between the Glucocorticoid – Group 4 and the control and other groups was statistically significant (P = 0.0001; table 12) at the various time intervals. It was also evident that the inclusion of parenteral glucocorticoids (group 4) may have assisted in prolonging the natural “gut closure”. Gut closure – a positive 2 point linear regression forecast line indicated an increasing trend in IgG absorption post-24 hours for group number 4 whilst groups 1, 2 and 3 each had a negative 2 point linear regression forecast line (figure 23). Weight / ADG (D42) - Group 2 showed a statistically significant increase in mean D42 weight (P = 0.0042) of 59.167 kg ± 3.545 kg when compared to the other study groups and compared to the control group (P = 0.0227). A comparison of the relative increase in mass of groups indicated that Group 2 efficiently achieved this result with a statistically significant ADG of 0.536 kg (P = 0.014) compared to the other study groups and compared to the control group (P = 0.022). In addition, weight / FCR – FCR was calculated for all groups as follows: G1 – 4.000 kg, G2 - 2.593 kg, G3 – 2.703 kg and G4 - 3.012 kg feed required for the production of 1 kg meat. The results indicated that the group 2 feed input was the most economical followed by groups 3, 4 and control respectively. In conclusion, it is evident that a nutritional supplement containing nucleotides, vitamins, trace- minerals, essential fatty acids, essential amino acids and pre-biotics may contribute significantly to important economic indicators such as weight gain, ADG and FCR on a commercial dairy farm. / Environmental Sciences / Ph. D. (Environmental Science)

To analyse the influence of crop rotations with a different ratio of nitrogen-fixing crops, catch crops and fertilisation with organic fertilisers on the following: 1. Soil enzyme activity; 2. Agrochemical properties of the soil and nitrogen balance; 3. Weed response; 4. Weed seed bank in the soil; 5. Crop yield and productivity. / Agroekosistemų optimizavimo augalų kaita, tarpiniais pasėliais ir organinėmis trąšomis ekologinėje žemdirbystėje tyrimai vykdyti 2004–2009 m., Lietuvos žemės ūkio universiteto Bandymų stotyje, sertifikuotame ekologinės žemdirbystės lauke, karbonatingame sekliai glėjiškame išplautžemyje (IDg8-k) – Calcari-Epihypogleyic Luvisol (LVg-p-w-cc). Tyrimų hipotezė. Optimizuoti agroekosistemas ekologinėje žemdirbystėje galima taikant priemonių kompleksą: parenkant sėjomainas su skirtinga azotą fiksuojančių augalų dalimi, auginant tarpinius pasėlius bei tręšiant organinėmis trąšomis. Tyrimų tikslas – įvertinti agroekosistemų optimizavimo galimybes ekologinėje žemdirbystėje derinant sėjomainas su skirtinga azotą fiksuojančių augalų dalimi, auginant tarpinius pasėlius ir tręšiant organinėmis trąšomis. Tyrimų uždaviniai: Ištirti sėjomainų su skirtinga azotą fiksuojančių augalų dalimi, tarpinių pasėlių ir tręšimo organinėmis trąšomis įtaką: 1. dirvožemio fermentų aktyvumui; 2. dirvožemio agrocheminėms savybėms ir azoto balansui; 3. pasėlių piktžolėtumui; 4. dirvožemio armens užteršimui piktžolių sėklomis; 5. augalų derlingumui ir bendrosios energijos kiekiui. Mokslinio darbo naujumas. Ekologinės žemdirbystės sąlygomis kompleksiškai įvertintas sėjomainų su skirtinga azotą fiksuojančių augalų dalimi, tarpinių pasėlių bei tręšimo organinėmis trąšomis poveikis agroekosistemoms. Tai suteikia naujų žinių apie potencialaus dirvožemio derlingumo palaikymo, pasėlių ir dirvos piktžolėtumo kontrolės... [toliau žr. visą tekstą]

Tyrimai atlikti 2008–2009 m. Lietuvos žemės ūkio universiteto Bandymų stotyje. Dirvožemis – karbonatingas sekliai glėjiškas išplautžemis (Calc(ar)i-Epihypogleyic Luvisol). Tyrimo A veiksnys – 4 septynių narių sėjomainų rotacijos su nevienoda azotą fiksuojančių augalų dalimi: I – 43 proc. (daugiametės žolės → daugiametės žolės → žieminiai kviečiai → vasariniai miežiai → žirniai → žieminiai kviečiai → miežiai), II – 43 proc. (daugiametės žolės → žieminiai kviečiai → žirniai → vasariniai miežiai su įsėliu → daugiametės žolės → žieminiai kviečiai → miežiai), III – 29 proc. (daugiametės žolės → bulvės → belukštės avižos → vasariniai miežiai → žirniai → žieminiai kviečiai → miežiai), IV – 14 proc. (daugiametės žolės → žieminiai kviečiai → bulvės → vasariniai miežiai → žieminiai rapsai → žieminiai kviečiai → miežiai). Veiksnys B – tarpinis pasėlis žaliajai trąšai: 1) be tarpinio pasėlio, 2) tarpinis pasėlis žaliajai trąšai. Nustatyta, kad sėjomainos piktžolių sėklų atsargoms dirvoje esminės įtakos neturėjo. Tarpinis pasėlis žaliajai trąšai, lyginant su jo nenaudojimu, turėjo tendenciją mažinti nuo 5,4 iki 44,2 proc. piktžolių sėklų atsargas dirvoje. Piktžolės pasiskirstė į 4 ekologines grupes pagal poreikį dirvožemio pH, azotui ir drėgnumui. Didžiausias sėklų kiekis dirvoje nustatytas indiferentiškų pagal poreikį dirvožemio pH ir drėgnumui, mažo rūgštumo ir silpnai šarminių dirvožemių piktžolių rūšių, azoto turtinguose dirvožemiuose augančių dažniau negu neturtinguose bei... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / Field experiments were carried out in 2008 and 2009 at the Experimental Station of Lithuanian University of Agriculture. The objective of this investigation was to determine the influence of crop rotations and catch crops for green manure on weed seed-bank and soil enzymes urease and saccharase activity in the organic farming. Soil – Calc(ar)i-Epihypogleyic Luvisol. Factor A of the experiment – crop rotations with a different ratio of nitrogen fixing crops: I – 43% (grass-clover→grass-clover→winter wheat→spring barley→peas→winter wheat→spring barley), II – 43% (grass-clover→winter wheat→peas→spring barley→grass-clover→winter wheat→spring barley), III – 29% (grass-clover→potato→oat→spring barley→peas→winter wheat→spring barley), IV – 14% (grass-clover→winter wheat→potato→spring barley→winter rape→winter wheat→spring barley). Factor B – catch crop: 1) without catch crop, 2) with catch crop. Crop rotations had no significant effect on weed seed-bank. Catch crop for green manure, compared to without catch crop, decreased from 5.4 to 44.2% the amount of weed seeds. Weeds distributed into 4 ecological groups according to soil pH, nitrogen and soil moisture demand. The highest amount of weed seeds belonged to indifferent to soil pH and moisture, slightly acid and slightly alkaline soil, more frequent on nitrogen rich soil than on poor and moderately nitrogen rich soil and very nitrogen rich soil, dry and moderately moist soil weed species. Qualitative distribution of weeds into... [to full text]