The most challenging and spoken criminal phenomenon today is indisputably organised crime. It is a crime that both the general public, business community, commentators, researchers, scholars, journalists, writers, politicians, prosecutors, jurists and presiding officials debate with different interpretation and understanding of the concept as well as the manifestation of the phenomena. Debates on the subject have seen the dawn of rival terminologies of organised crime and crimes that are organised. While the United Nations has not assisted the nations in finding a definition of what organised crime is, the confusion has spread throughout the globe and South Africa has not been spared the pandemonium. The objective of this study is to comparatively assess the present understanding and setup in South Africa in comparison with Italy, Tanzania and the United States of America, identify the root causes of the confusion and find possible remedies to liberate the situation. The research concludes with the findings and recommendations. / Criminal & Procedural Law / LL.D.

The most challenging and spoken criminal phenomenon today is indisputably organised crime. It is a crime that both the general public, business community, commentators, researchers, scholars, journalists, writers, politicians, prosecutors, jurists and presiding officials debate with different interpretation and understanding of the concept as well as the manifestation of the phenomena. Debates on the subject have seen the dawn of rival terminologies of organised crime and crimes that are organised. While the United Nations has not assisted the nations in finding a definition of what organised crime is, the confusion has spread throughout the globe and South Africa has not been spared the pandemonium. The objective of this study is to comparatively assess the present understanding and setup in South Africa in comparison with Italy, Tanzania and the United States of America, identify the root causes of the confusion and find possible remedies to liberate the situation. The research concludes with the findings and recommendations. / Criminal and Procedural Law / LL.D.

The concept of organ transplantation is not a new concept in South Africa and many organ transplants are performed annually. However, the problem that arises is that there is currently a shortage of donor organs suitable for transplant and this leads to the demand for organs exceeding the supply thereof. This in itself opens the door for unethical and criminal ways of obtaining organs. One of the ways in which these organs are obtained is child trafficking for the sole purpose of removal of organs. Although there are several reasons why children are abducted and used in child trafficking practices, the removal of their organs is discussed as the main reason in this study. The Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children, Supplementing the United National Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (2000) (hereinafter the Protocol), which South Africa signed and ratified, is the international instrument which places an obligation on South Africa to address the issue relating to human trafficking by implementing legislation. Until recently there had been no legislation specifically regulating human trafficking. Through the years, several bills for implementation in the national legislative framework were proposed to parliment. In 2013, the Prevention and Combating of Trafficking in Persons Act was incorporated into national legislation to address South Africa's international and regional obligations. In this study, the international, regional and national framework concerning trafficking is outlined and discussed as well as the Prevention and Combating of Trafficking in Persons Act to determine to what extent they do provide protection to victims of human trafficking. / LLM (Comparative Child Law), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

The concept of organ transplantation is not a new concept in South Africa and many organ transplants are performed annually. However, the problem that arises is that there is currently a shortage of donor organs suitable for transplant and this leads to the demand for organs exceeding the supply thereof. This in itself opens the door for unethical and criminal ways of obtaining organs. One of the ways in which these organs are obtained is child trafficking for the sole purpose of removal of organs. Although there are several reasons why children are abducted and used in child trafficking practices, the removal of their organs is discussed as the main reason in this study. The Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children, Supplementing the United National Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (2000) (hereinafter the Protocol), which South Africa signed and ratified, is the international instrument which places an obligation on South Africa to address the issue relating to human trafficking by implementing legislation. Until recently there had been no legislation specifically regulating human trafficking. Through the years, several bills for implementation in the national legislative framework were proposed to parliment. In 2013, the Prevention and Combating of Trafficking in Persons Act was incorporated into national legislation to address South Africa's international and regional obligations. In this study, the international, regional and national framework concerning trafficking is outlined and discussed as well as the Prevention and Combating of Trafficking in Persons Act to determine to what extent they do provide protection to victims of human trafficking. / LLM (Comparative Child Law), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Les Hells Angels (HA) sont un groupe de motards qui surprennent par leur longévité. Implantés dans la province en 1977, ils sont toujours présents et actifs. Pourtant, ils ont évolué dans un contexte où les risques endogènes et exogènes furent croissants : conflits internes chez les motards, hostilités et rivalités inter groupes, opérations policières, incarcérations massives et changements législatifs sont autant d’obstacles qui se sont dressés devant eux. Que signifie être un motard et comment sont-ils demeurés résilients? Bien que différentes forces matérielles et organisationnelles aident les HA à surmonter les difficultés, nous avançons que l’élément clé de cette continuité réside dans leur réputation. En ce sens, nous adhérons à la thèse de Gambetta (2009) qui affirme que la persistance de la croyance en l’immortalité de la mafia provoque un phénomène de self-fulfilling prophecy qui rend l’organisation effectivement résiliente. Cet argument est ici appliqué aux Hells du Québec. Des entrevues auprès de motards incarcérés et non incarcérés, de délinquants non motards et de membres du personnel du Service correctionnel du Canada, ont permis de constater que l’étiquette de « Hells Angels » influence la vie des individus qui la portent. Les résultats supportent l’hypothèse que la réputation d’être une organisation dangereuse offre au groupe une valeur économique et symbolique. Néanmoins, la réputation des Hells Angels engendre des aspects négatifs pour les individus qui endossent ce nom. Il devient intéressant de comprendre l’impact d’une telle étiquette à travers différentes phases d’une carrière collective. / Regardless of the intense public focus, members of the Hells Angels organization in Quebec continue to be active in illegal markets. What does it means to be a Hells Angels and how has the organization remained resilient to law enforcement and internal conflicts in the criminal underworld? Although financial and organizational strengths help the members overcome difficulties, the main argument in this study places a focus on the Hells Angels reputation as the key element accounting for their continuity. I embrace Gambetta’s thesis (2009) which states that the persistence of belief in the immortality of the criminal group generates a self-fulfilling prophecy that renders the organization increasingly resilient. This thesis is extended to the Hells Angels context and applied to interviews conducted with bikers, non-biker inmates and staff members in Quebec penitentiaries. Findings support the main thesis in that the organization’s reputation for being dangerous offers that group an effective economic and symbolic value. However, there is a drawback of this reputation that has to be considered. The Hells Angels label in Quebec generates negative aspects for individuals who endorse it. It is interesting to understand the impact of such a labelling phenomenon, through different phases of their collective career.

'Thieves-in-law' (vory-v-zakone in Russian or kanonieri qurdebi in Georgian) are career criminals belonging to a criminal fraternity that has existed at least since the 1930s in the Soviet Gulag. These actors still exist in one form or another in post-Soviet countries and have integrated into transnational organised criminal networks. For reasons yet to be explicated, thieves-in-law became exceptionally prevalent in the Soviet republic of Georgia. Here, by the 1990s, they formed a mafia network where this means criminal associations that attempt to monopolize protection in legal and illegal sectors of the economy. In 2005, Mikhail Saakashvili, the current president of Georgia claimed that 'in the past 15 years ... Georgia was not ruled by [former President] Shevardnadze, but by thieves-in-law.' Directly transferring anti-organised crime policy from Italy and America, Saakashvili's government made reform of the criminal justice system generally and an attack on the thieves-in-law specifically a cornerstone of the Rose Revolution. New legislation criminalises the possession of the status of ‘thief-in-law’ and of membership of criminal associations that constitute what is known as the ‘thieves’ world’ (qurduli samkaro). Along with a sweeping reform of the police and prisons and a ‘culture of lawfulness’ campaign, Georgian criminal justice reforms since 2003 may be seen as the first sustained anti-mafia policy to be implemented in a post-Soviet country. It also appears to have been very successful. The longevity and sudden decline of the thieves-in-law in Georgia provides the main questions that the following study addresses: How do we account for changes in the levels of resilience to state attack of actors carrying the elite criminal status of ‘thief-in-law’? How has this resilience been so effectively compromised since 2005? Utilising unique access to primary sources of data such as police files, court cases, archives and expert interviews this thesis studies the dynamics of changing mafia activities, recruitment practices, and structural forms of a criminal group as it relates to changes in the environment and, in particular, the recent anti-organised crime policy.

This doctoral thesis is concerned with an in-depth analysis of organized crime under criminological and criminal-law aspects, taking an approach that recognizes organized crime as a multi-faceted, dynamically changing category. The importance of this issue derives, firstly, from the grave threat to society which it represents and, secondly, from the on-going international and domestic discussions of the need for better tools to eradicate it. The first part of this work conveys the nature of organized crime, and based upon an understanding of the modern forms of organized crime raises and reappraises the important substantive-law questions of its criminalization and punishment. Organized crime is inseparably associated with the most controversial institutions of procedural criminal law, namely, the institutions of the cooperating accused person, informers, agents provocateurs, and the protected witness, which in the fight against organized crime represent a serious challenge for the fundamental principles of procedural criminal law. A theoretical analysis of these issues follows, which, together with a look on the consequences of the imperfect current Czech legislation being applied in practice, highlights the need for reappraisal and reform of the current laws. The thesis takes a critical,...

Les Hells Angels (HA) sont un groupe de motards qui surprennent par leur longévité. Implantés dans la province en 1977, ils sont toujours présents et actifs. Pourtant, ils ont évolué dans un contexte où les risques endogènes et exogènes furent croissants : conflits internes chez les motards, hostilités et rivalités inter groupes, opérations policières, incarcérations massives et changements législatifs sont autant d’obstacles qui se sont dressés devant eux. Que signifie être un motard et comment sont-ils demeurés résilients? Bien que différentes forces matérielles et organisationnelles aident les HA à surmonter les difficultés, nous avançons que l’élément clé de cette continuité réside dans leur réputation. En ce sens, nous adhérons à la thèse de Gambetta (2009) qui affirme que la persistance de la croyance en l’immortalité de la mafia provoque un phénomène de self-fulfilling prophecy qui rend l’organisation effectivement résiliente. Cet argument est ici appliqué aux Hells du Québec. Des entrevues auprès de motards incarcérés et non incarcérés, de délinquants non motards et de membres du personnel du Service correctionnel du Canada, ont permis de constater que l’étiquette de « Hells Angels » influence la vie des individus qui la portent. Les résultats supportent l’hypothèse que la réputation d’être une organisation dangereuse offre au groupe une valeur économique et symbolique. Néanmoins, la réputation des Hells Angels engendre des aspects négatifs pour les individus qui endossent ce nom. Il devient intéressant de comprendre l’impact d’une telle étiquette à travers différentes phases d’une carrière collective. / Regardless of the intense public focus, members of the Hells Angels organization in Quebec continue to be active in illegal markets. What does it means to be a Hells Angels and how has the organization remained resilient to law enforcement and internal conflicts in the criminal underworld? Although financial and organizational strengths help the members overcome difficulties, the main argument in this study places a focus on the Hells Angels reputation as the key element accounting for their continuity. I embrace Gambetta’s thesis (2009) which states that the persistence of belief in the immortality of the criminal group generates a self-fulfilling prophecy that renders the organization increasingly resilient. This thesis is extended to the Hells Angels context and applied to interviews conducted with bikers, non-biker inmates and staff members in Quebec penitentiaries. Findings support the main thesis in that the organization’s reputation for being dangerous offers that group an effective economic and symbolic value. However, there is a drawback of this reputation that has to be considered. The Hells Angels label in Quebec generates negative aspects for individuals who endorse it. It is interesting to understand the impact of such a labelling phenomenon, through different phases of their collective career.

Human trafficking for sexual exploitation, as the most documented type of trafficking both internationally and in South Africa, was the focus of this study as it poses significant challenges to response efforts whilst remaining a crime of vast impunity. At the centre of this study was the researcher’s curiosity-infused endeavour to understand the lived experiences of multipronged stakeholders who have first-hand experience of the investigation into human trafficking for sexual exploitation. A qualitative approach and the use of hermeneutic phenomenology within a broader postmodernist and constructivist positioning served as the catalyst for generating novel insights. Numerous formal and informal conversations over the 5-year research period, site visits to multiple sex trade locations around South Africa and 91 in-depth and unstructured interviews with participants from 15 different vantage points were conducted. Five themes were identified from participants’ lived experiences as they related to the investigation of human trafficking for sexual exploitation. These were Theme 1: Sex Trade, Human Trafficking and Organised Crime; Theme 2: Combating Human Trafficking for Sexual Exploitation; Theme 3: Victims of Human Trafficking for Sexual Exploitation; Theme 4: Corruption and Compromise; and Theme 5: The Social Context and Scope of the Problem. A rich and in-depth presentation of participants’ lived experiences from an emic point of view was made. Knowledge generated include the revelation of problematic claims by preservationists around the nature of the sex trade in South Africa, insights into complexities intrinsic to human trafficking for sexual exploitation and multi-layered challenges associated with investigations into the crime. At the apex of the study was the deconstruction of complex systems theory and its application to the phenomenological essence of participants’ lived experiences. A proposed application of the theory was suggested for a more agile, robust and effective multipronged investigation strategy to combat human trafficking for sexual exploitation. A strong argument is made for a ‘whole’ and non-reductionist approach to investigations that continuously considers both the complexity of the crime and the day-to-day realities of the stakeholders who contribute to the multipronged investigation into human trafficking for sexual exploitation. / Ukurhweba ngabantu ngeenjongo zokubaxhaphaza ngokwesondo, lolona didi lorhwebo lokuxhaphaza ekubhalwe ngalo kakhulu kwihlabathi jikelele nakuMzantsi Afrika. Esi sifundo sigxile kolu rhwebo njengoko lucela umngeni kwimizamo yokusabela lo gama ilulwaphulo mthetho olungalawulekiyo. Esizikithini sesi sifundo yayingumdla womphandi ukuqonda ngamava abo bathatha inxaxheba ekuphandeni ngorhwebo lokuxhaphaza ngokwesondo. Kukhethwe ufundo oluqwalasela umgangatho nokusetyenziswa kwesimbo sokutolika iimeko ezikhoyo kwilizwe elisemva kwelale mihla siphila kuyo njengeyona nqobo eya kuveza iimbono ezingaqhelekanga. Kwabanjwa inqwaba yeencoko ezisesikweni nezingekho sikweni ezenziwe kwisithuba seminyaka yophando engaphaya kwemihlanu, kwatyelelwa kwiindawo zorhwebo lokuxhaphaza ngokwesondlo ezikhoyo eMzantsi Afrika, kwabanjwa nodliwano ndlebe olunzulu lungaqingqwanga olungama-91 nabantu abakwiindawo zomdla ezili-15. Kwabonakala imixholo emihlanu esuka kumava abathathi nxaxheba malunga nophando ngorhwebo lokuxhaphaza ngesondo. Le mixholo yile: Umxholo woku-1: Urhwebo Lwesondo, Urhwebo Lokuxhaphaza Abantu, Nolwaphulo Mthetho Olucwangcisiweyo; Umxholo wesi-2: Ukulwa Urhwebo lokuxhaphaza abantu Ngenjongo Yesondo; Umxholo wesi-3: Amaxhoba Orhwebo Lokuxhaphaza Abantu Ngenjongo Yesondo; Umxholo wesi-4: Ubuqhophololo Nokunikezela; kunye noMxholo wesi-5: Imeko Yezentlalo Nomthamo Wengxaki. Kwenziwa inkcazelo enzulu netyebileyo yamava abathathi nxaxheba evelelwa ngokwendlela abantu bendawo abacinga nabazibona ngayo izinto. Ulwazi olufunyenweyo luquka izimvo eziyingxaki zabantu abakhuthaza ukugcinwa kwezinto zinjengoko zinjalo, malunga nohlolo olululo lorhwebo ngesondo eMzantsi Afrika, izimvo ngobunzima obubuthume kurhwebo lokuxhaphaza abantu ngenjongo yesondo kunye nemingeni emininzi eyayanyaniswa nophando lolwaphulo mthetho. Encochoyini yesi sifundo kukuhlakaza ingcingane exhakaxhaka yeenkqubo nokusetyenziswa kwayo kwiimeko ezikhoyo kumava abathathi nxaxheba. Kwacetyiswa indlela yokusebenzisa le ngcingane ekwenzeni icebo elinamandla nelisebenzayo lokulwa urhwebo lokuxhaphaza abantu ngenjongo yesondo. Kuthethelwa indlela yokusebenza ‘epheleleyo’ nengacuthi nto ekuqhubeni uphando v olusoloko luthathela ingqalelo ubuxhakaxhaka bolwaphulo mthetho namava emihla ngemihla abathathi nxaxheba abafaka isandla kuphando oluvelela iinkalo ezininzi kurhwebo lokuxhaphaza abantu ngenjongo yesondo. / Ukushushumbiswa kwabantu ukuze baxhashazwe ngokocansi, njengohlobo lokushushumbisa oluqoshwe phansi ngokudlula zonke ezinye izinhlobo emhlabeni wonke kanye naseNingizimu Afrika, yikona okugxilwe kukho kakhulu kulolu cwaningo njengoba kuyikona okungadala izingqinamba ezinkulu emizamweni yokubhekana nakho kube futhi kuyilona hlobo lobugebengu olungajeziswa kangako. Okunguwona mgomo walolu cwaningo yimizamo yomcwaningi egqugquzelwa ngukufuna kwakhe ukwazi ukuze aqonde lokho okubonwe ngababandakanyekayo abahlukahlukene abebebhekene ngqo nokuphenywa kodaba lokushushumbiswa kwabantu ukuze baxhashazwe ngokocansi. Kusetshenziswe indlela yokwenza ephathelene nokuqoqwa kwemininingwane engamaqiniso nokusetshenziswa kohlobo locwaningo olwahlukile kulolo olubheka ukwenzeka kwezinto ngokwemvelo maqondana nokuhleleka kwezinto ngokwesikhathi esilandela esezinto zesimanjemanje, nangendlela elandela umumo othize, njengegqugquzela ubukhona bokuqonda okuhlaba umxhwele ngokungajwayelekile. Kube khona izingxoxo eziningi ezihleliwe nezingahlelwanga ezenzeke esikhathini esiyiminyaka emihlanu yocwaningo, kwavakashelwa izizinda eziningi ezindaweni okuhwetshelwana kuzo ngocansi eziseNingizimu Afrika, kwaphinde kwaba nezingxoxo ezingama-91 ezijulile ngokuphonsa imibuzo engahleliwe ngokusemthethweni kubabambiqhaza abavela ezindaweni eziyi-15 ezilungele lolu cwaningo. Kuhlonzwe izingqikithi ezinhlanu eziqhamuke kulokho okubonwe ngababambiqhaza ngokuhlobana kwabo nophenyo lokushushumbiswa kwabantu ukuze baxhashazwe ngokocansi. Yilezi, Ingqikithi 1: Ukuhweba Ngocansi, Ukushushumbiswa Kwabantu Nobugebengu Obuhleliwe; Ingqikithi 2: Ukulwisana Nokushushumbiswa Kwabantu Ukuze Baxhashazwe Ngokocansi; Ingqikithi 3: Izisulu Zokushushumbiswa Ukuze Zixhashazwe Ngokocansi; Ingqikithi 4: Inkohlakalo Nokwenza Okungahambisani Nawe; neNgqikithi 5: Indikimba Kwezenhlalo Nobubanzi Benkinga. Kube sekwethulwa ngokucebile nangokujulile okubonwe ngababambiqhaza ngokwencazelo ehambisana nohlobo lwesifundo. Ulwazi olutholakele lubandakanya ukuvela kwalokho okuyinkinga okushiwo yilabo abalwela ubukhona bohwebo lwezocansi eNingizimu Afrika, ukuqondwa kwalokho okungekho lula ukukuqonda okuphathelene vii nokushushumbiswa kwabantu ukuze baxhashazwe ngokocansi kanye nezingqinamba ezishiyana ngokwezigaba ezihambisana nophenyo lwalobu bugebengu. Ekujuleni kocwaningo kube khona ukuhlaziya okubanzi ngokuhlakaza izinhlelo zezinzululwazi okungekho lula ukuziqonda nokusetshenziswa kwazo kulokho okusemqoka okubonwe ngababambiqhaza. Kuhlongozwe ukuba kusetshenziswe isu elisheshayo, elishubile nelizosebenza ngempumelelo elihlukene izigaba eziningi ezibheka konke elizolwisana nokushushumbiswa kwabantu ukuze baxhashazwe ngokocansi. Ukudingida kabanzi ngendlela 'ephelele' nengancike ndawo okumele ilandelwe uma kuphenywa nezobheka kokubili ukungabi lula kobugebengu okubhekenwe nabo kanye nokubonwa imihla ngemihla ngababambiqhaza abasiza ngokuthile ophenyweni olubheka okuningi okwahlukahlukene maqondana nokushushumbiswa kwabantu ukuze baxhashazwe ngokocansi. / Criminology and Security Science

This study focuses on examining the security implications of money laundering and countermeasures, with reference to South Africa. The purpose of this study was to establish the following: <ul> <li> What is the extent, and what are the security implications of money laundering in South Africa;</li> <li> whether the current money laundering countermeasures in South Africa were effectively implemented from 1994 up to the end of 2006;</li> <li> if South Africa could implement better money laundering controls when compared to the G7/8 countries; and</li> <li> what the factors were that influenced money laundering in South Africa, compared to the G7/8 countries</li> </ul> This study also examined the validity of the following assumptions: <ul> <li>That there are still shortcomings in the practical application of money laundering countermeasures in South Africa, despite these countermeasures being based on the legislative measures adopted by the G7/8 countries; and</li> <li> money laundering promotes crime and corruption in South Africa.</li> </ul> An analysis of the South African anti-money laundering legislation indicated that South Africa had legislatively adopted all of the Financial Action Task Force money laundering recommendations. It was found that despite the strong legislative framework to combat money laundering in South Africa, these efforts were undermined by a lack of capacity; poor coordination that led to a large volume of reports being filed without a corresponding track record of successful prosecutions; and the failure to adopt advances in information technology. This led to a lack of effectively and efficiently translating the anti-money laundering legislation into practice in South Africa. / Dissertation (M(Security Studies))--University of Pretoria, 2008. / Political Sciences / unrestricted